ABC Chart
A data sheet used to track and analyze challenging behaviors. A= antecedent B= behavior C= consequence
Abulia
The lack of purposeful or spontaneous movements. There may be a lack of motivation or desire to perform a task, despite intact ability to perform the task or difficulty putting goal-directed behavior into action. See also Adynamic Aphasia.
Acalculia
An acquired problem with math.
Accommodation
An adaptation made to an environment, facility or task to enhance the performance of an individual with a disability. Changes in how test is administered that do not substantially alter what the test measures; includes changes in presentation format, response format, test setting or test timing. Appropriate accommodations are made to level the playing field, i.e., to provide equal opportunity to demonstrate knowledge.
Accuracy
The ability to recognize words correctly.
ACE Awards
The Award for Continuing Education (ACE) is a formal recognition of professionals who have demonstrated their commitment to lifelong learning by earning 7.0 American Speech-Language Hearing Association (ASHA) CEUs (70 contact hours) within a 36-month period. The ACE is awarded only to those who earn ASHA CEUs through participating in the ASHA CE Registry. If an ASHA certified SLP does not have an ACE award, it does not mean that that person has not been earning CEUs. See also Certificate of Clinical Competency.
Achievement Test
Test that measures competency in a particular area of knowledge or skill; measures mastery or acquisition of skills.
Acoustic Room Treatment
The use of sound-absorbing materials (such as carpets and acoustical tile) to reduce room noise and improve the usefulness of hearing aids and other listening devices.
Acoustics
Having to do with sound, the sense of hearing, or the science of sound.
Acquired Hearing
Loss Hearing loss which is not present at birth. Sometimes referred to as adventitious loss.
Acquired
Occurring after birth; not caused by genetic or prenatal factors.
Acquired Dyspraxia
Also known as verbal apraxia or dyspraxia, is a speech disorder in which a person has trouble saying what he or she wants to say correctly and consistently. It is not due to weakness or paralysis of the speech muscles (the muscles of the face, tongue, and lips). The severity of apraxia of speech can range from mild to severe…. People with either form of apraxia of speech may have a number of different speech characteristics, or symptoms. One of the most notable symptoms is difficulty putting sounds and syllables together in the correct order to form words. Longer or more complex words are usually harder to say than shorter or simpler words. People with apraxia of speech also tend to make inconsistent mistakes when speaking. For example, they may say a difficult word correctly but then have trouble repeating it, or they may be able to say a particular sound one day and have trouble with the same sound the next day. People with apraxia of speech often appear to be groping for the right sound or word, and may try saying a word several times before they say it correctly.
Acquisition Skill
A skill that is being taught. This is a skill that the client does not currently possess.
Active Listening
Taking an active responsibility for understanding a spoken message, e.g. using clarification strategies.
Adaptive Skills
Self-help skills the child uses for daily living (such as feeding, toileting, dressing).
Adjective
Also called “a describing word,” an adjective provides a description of a noun (e.g., a red ball).
Adjusted Age
The expected developmental age after a correction is made for prematurity.
Administrative Review
A meeting in which parents present complaints regarding a child’s evaluation, educational placement, or provision of special education to the superintendent of the school district for review.
Adult Neurogenic Communication Disorder Therapy
A Neurogenic Communication Disorder is most often the result of brain damage or other types of central nervous system damage, such as a stroke. Neurogenic Communication Disorders can also be caused by an infection in the central nervous system or by certain diseases, including Parkinson’s disease. There are different classifications of this disorder. Neurogenic Communication Disorder can affect how a person speaks and can include problems with understanding language whether it is written, spoken or read. In certain instances, a person with this disorder knows what they want to say, but cannot find the right words to say it. Other times, the muscles that are needed for speech and swallowing are affected. This means that the person cannot move the muscles that are needed in order to speak and they might have problems swallowing. Sometimes a Neurogenic Communication Disorder causes a person the inability to distinguish certain words that are shown or said to them, words that were easily recognizable before the disorder started. For instance, if you show them a picture of a tomato (which is an easily recognizable item) they may not be able to say the word or even write it down, even if they know what it is. Fortunately, there is treatment for this disorder. It is not always curable, but many people make great progress once they start receiving treatment and are often able to be taught how to function in a normal way again.
Adventitious Deafness
A hearing loss that occurs any time after birth due to injury or disease.
Adversarial System
The system of trial practice in which each of the opposing parties has an opportunity to present and establish opposing contentions before the court.
Advocacy
Within the intervention community, this term refers to the act of supporting or defending a child’s interest and rights.
Advocate
One that pleads in another’s behalf; an intercessor: one that defends or maintains a cause or proposal.
Adynamic Aphasia
Difficulty translating a concept or a thought into a sequence of words (lexical items). In other words, the person may have trouble getting started. This difficulty with the intentional elements of communication is addressed by several parts of the BCAT program. This may be contrasted with dynamic aphasia.
Affricate
Affricates – generally referred to as ‘the affricates’ – are individual consonants made with ‘affrication’. English has two affricates. The voiceless affricate is ‘ch’, heard twice in the word ‘church’, and the voiced affricate is the sound that is heard twice in the word ‘judge’.
The place-voice-manner (PVM) chart below shows the voiceless palatal affricate as in ‘etch’ and the voiced palatal affricate as in ‘edge’.
Age Appropriate
See Within Normal Limits.
Age Equivalent Score
In a norm-referenced assessment, individual student’s scores are reported relative to those of the norming population. This can be done in a variety of ways, but one way is to report the average age of people who received the same score as the individual child. Thus, an individual child’s score is described as being the same as students that are younger, the same age, or older than that student (e.g. a 9 year old student my receive the same score that an average 13 year old student does, suggesting that this student is quite advanced).
Age Equivalent (AE)
Age equivalency references the age at which an individual seems to be performing. This is usually indicated on such test results from the Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement or the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.
Age of Majority
All individuals age of eighteen years or more, who are under no legal disability, are capable of contracting and are of full age for all purposes.
Agnosia
The inability to recognize an object by touch alone or with both hands.
Agrammatism
The omission of or difficulty in producing linguistic units by people with aphasia when they speak or write; often have problems using small yet important words such as: pronouns (you; him; our); propositions (in; down, below); helping verbs (should; can); conjunctions (but, while, during); and verbs (is; walk; think), as well as parts of whole words (-ing, -ly, -er, -ier, -est, -ed) and irregular changes (run>ran, understand>understood).
Agraphia
An acquired problem with writing and spelling.
Agree
When a requirement states “agree,” it means it can be an oral agreement. It refers to an understanding between a parent and the school district and does not need to meet the requirements for parental consent. The school district should document any oral agreements. If an action is to be “agreed to in writing,” this agreement may consist of a signed and dated paper, or the school district may choose to develop a form for this purpose.
Air Conduction
An evaluative measure performed during diagnostic audiologic testing whereby sound is delivered via earphones through the ear canal, the ear drum, and middle ear to the inner ear to assess hearing sensitivity. Contrasts with Bone Conduction.
Air Flow / Air Stream
All speech sounds are produced by making air move in the vocal tract. This movement of air is referred to as the ‘air stream’ or ‘air flow’.
Alexia
Acquired difficulty reading printed language.
Alphabetic Principle
The basic idea that written language is a code in which letters represent the sounds in spoken words.
Alternative Communication
Any procedure or device that substitutes a nonspeech mode of communication for spoken language.
Alveolar
Speech sounds produced from contact between articulators at the alveolar ridges (immediately behind upper front teeth). Alveolar consonants, or ‘the alveolars’, are made with the narrowest point of constriction of the air stream at the alveolar ridge. This point of constriction is called the place of articulation. The alveolars in English, as shown on either a Consonant Chart or a place-voice-manner chart are: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, and /l/.
The Place-Voice-Manner (PVM) chart below shows the voiceless and voiced alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, the voiceless and voiced alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/, the voiced alveolar nasal /n/ and the voiced alveolar liquid /l/.
Alveolar Ridge
The alveolar ridge is the hard, bony, bumpy ridge between the top of the upper teeth and the hard palate.
Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s Disease is a form of dementia affecting a person’s memory, thinking and behavior.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
A federal legislation which impacts accessibility for disabled persons in education, the workplace, and public places. Basic rights covered by Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA)
American Sign Language (ASL)
A visual/gestural language used by many deaf people in the United States and Canada. Its grammar and syntax are not the same as English. See Signed English System.
American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA)
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) is the professional, scientific, and credentialing association for audiologists, speech-language pathologists, and speech, language, and hearing scientists. Their mission is to ensure that all people with speech, language, and hearing disorders have access to quality services to help them communicate more effectively.
Amnesia
A problem remembering persons, places or events.
Amplification
Personal hearing aids, cochlear implants, and FM assistive listening devices that enhance hearing.
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
ALS is also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. This is a disease affecting the cells in the brain and spinal cord that control movement. Because the brain is unable to send messages to the body through neurons, people who have this disease slowly lose control of moving their muscles.
Anagram
A. A word formed by rearranging the letters of another word; B. A sentence formed by rearranging the words of another sentence.
Ankyloglossia
Limited movement of the tongue due to abnormal shortness of the lingual frenum; commonly referred to as tongue-tie.
Annual Goals
Statements on an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that describe what a student can be expected to accomplish in one year in the identified area of need.
Annual Performance Report (APR)
States must report annually on their performance on the targets identified in the State Performance Plan (SPP) through an Annual Performance Report (APR). The APR reflects the state’s progress toward meeting its Part B goals. The APR provides the actual target data, explanation of progress or slippage, and discussion of improvement activities completed by the state, for each indicator.
Anomia
Is a type of aphasia characterized by problems recalling words or names. People suffering from anomia often use circumlocutions when attempting to mentally access a specific word. This is similar to when a person without aphasia cannot remember a word saying , “It is on the tip of my tongue.”
Anosognosia
A lack of awareness or recognition of one’s disabilities or impairments. People may have anosognosia following a stroke or traumatic brain injury. This may be confused with learned non-attention or learned helplessness.
Antecedent
A circumstance or event that precedes a behavior.
Antonyms
Words that are opposite in meaning to each other (e.g., day and night) these can be used in an effective treatment program.
Anxiety
Uneasiness of the mind, typically shown by apprehension, worry and fear.
Aphasia
Loss of language abilities due to brain damage, usually on the left side of the brain where most people have their “language centers”. We often see aphasia as the result of an adult who has had a stroke and has trouble naming items, remembering words, categorizing, and conversing. Children can also have aphasia as a result of brain damage.
Aphasia / Dysphasia
These are the oldest terms used in the field of specific language impairments. Originally they would have described the field completely. They have Greek roots, and describe the conditions of having no speech (“a” = “not” and “pha” = “speak”) and having deviant speech (“dys” = “bad”) following brain trauma, such as head injury, a stroke or meningitis. Speech here includes language. These terms are still used widely in the adult field in connection with acquired language difficulties. For nearly a century, all research and clinical understanding of speech and language impairments was gathered under these terms.
Aphasiologist
A term used for an SLP who specializes in the treatment aphasia.
Aphonia
Loss of the voice resulting from disease, injury to the vocal cords, or various psychological causes.
Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)
ABA is a method to change behavior. It consists of delivery of systematic directions that elicit responses from the student which are consistently reinforced. The theory is that reinforced behavior will reoccur. ABA is a discipline that requires consistency, behavior prompting and rewards for correct behavior or approximations of correctness.
Applied Verbal Behavior (AVB)
A sub-specialty of ABA developed by B.F. Skinner. AVB focuses on teaching across all categories of language.
Approximant
An approximant is a consonant made with little obstruction to the air stream. The approximants in English are /l/ as in lay, /r/ as in ray, /w/ as in way and /j/ as in yay. In older terminology /w/ and /j/ were called semivowels. Note that the phonetic symbol for the first sound in the words ‘yay’ and ‘you’ is /j/.
Apraxia
A speech disorder in which the child or adult has trouble coordinating voluntary movements. SLPs refer to this as a motor planning disorder, where the child may know what he wants to say, but has trouble making his mouth/tongue/lips/teeth move in the right order to produce clear speech. Also called apraxia of speech, developmental apraxia or childhood apraxia (there is also a limb apraxia).
Apraxia of Speech
A motor planning disorder.
Aprosodia
An acquired difficulty with using and/or interpreting emotional prosody, which can result after brain injury.
Article
Noun modifier that denotes specificity; e.g. a, an, the.
Articulation
Articulation is the physical ability to move the tongue, lips, jaw and palate (known as the articulators) to produce individual speech sounds which we call phonemes. For example, to articulate the /b/ sound, we need to inhale, then while exhaling we need to turn our voice on, bring our slightly tensed lips together to stop and build up the airflow, and then release the airflow by parting our lips. We can only produce, or articulate, the sounds of speech by moving body parts (by contracting and relaxing muscles), and by making air move. Most of the movements for speech take place in the mouth and throat, and the chest where breath is controlled. The mouth and throat parts are called ‘the articulators’. The principal articulators are the tongue, lips, the lower jaw, the teeth, the soft palate (velum), the uvula and the larynx (voice box). There are active articulators which can be moved into contact with other articulators (e.g., the tongue) and passive articulators which are ‘fixed’ (e.g., teeth, alveolar ridge, and hard palate). Problems with any of the articulators lead to an articulation disorder affecting intelligibility to varying degrees. Problems may be:
Articulation Delay/Disorder
An articulation delay/disorder is when a child has not mastered age appropriate sounds in the typical time frame. This is characterized by the child substituting, omitting, adding or distorting speech sounds.
Articulation Test
See Core Speech Assessment Battery.
Articulation Therapy
Correct sound production is essential to communication. Articulation and phonological disorders comprise the greatest number of speech disorders we face. Whether a child’s speech is unintelligible or just not as clear as it could be, effective communication is a primary goal of all speakers.
Articulators
Organs of the speech mechanism which produce meaningful sound (i.e., lips, lower jaw, velum, tongue and pharynx).
Asperger Syndrome
Asperger Syndrome, also known as Asperger’s Disorder or Autistic Psychopathy, is a Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) characterized by severe and sustained impairment in social interaction, development of restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. These characteristics result in clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. In contrast to Autistic disorder (Autism), there are no clinically significant delays in language or cognition, self help skills or in adaptive behavior, other than social interaction. This condition was first identified in 1944 by Hans Asperger. He described a group of children with autistic behaviour and thinking, who, generally, had good intellectual and linguistic abilities. They are defined as a discrete group in the classification systems of the World Health Association and the American Psychiatric Association, but there is controversy about whether the distinction can be made reliably. Typically, children with Asperger’s syndrome acquire speech and linguistic structures, but have difficulty with the social use of language. Tantam (1988) suggests that the term Asperger’s syndrome is best reserved as a term to describe those who…
Aspiration
Generic term referring to the action of material penetrating the larynx and entering the airway below the true vocal folds; may occur (a) before the swallowing reflex is triggered when the airway has not elevated or closed, (b) during swallowing if the laryngeal valves are not functioning adequately, and (c) after the swallow when the larynx lowers and opens for inhalation.
Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS-R)
Assessment, curriculum guide, and skills tracking system for children with language delays developed by James W. Partington, Ph.D. and Mark L. Sundberg, Ph.D.
Assessment
Formal (e.g., standardized tests) and informal procedures used to identify a person’s unique needs, strengths, weaknesses, learning style, and nature and extent of intervention services needed. Methods or tools used for measuring:
Assistive Listening Devices
A group of systems including personal hearing aids, FM systems and infrared systems that through special input enhance listening situations and auditory awareness for use of the telephone, television, amplified alarms and signals.
Assistive Technology
Any item of piece of equipment that is designed and used to help a child compensate for an impairment (voice synthesizer, Braille writer, computer, etc.).
Assistive Technology Device
Any item, piece of equipment or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability. The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device.
Assistive Technology Service
Any service that directly assists a child with a disability in the selection, acquisition or use of an assistive technology device. The term includes:
Associations
The Mutual Recognition of Professional Association Credentials (MRA) Signatories are ASHA, NZSTA, IASLT, RCSLT, SAC and SPA. Note that ASHA and SAC members may be speech-language pathologists and/or audiologists. NZSLT, IASLT, RCSLT and SPA membership does not include audiologists and audiologists in New Zealand, Ireland, the UK and Australia have separate professional associations.
Associative Play
When children play with each other, sharing the same materials and activities in an unorganized way. At this level the children may be involved in play related to the same theme (e.g., playing blocks, playing “police/firefighter”) but not have organized scenarios with a common goal in their play. Each child purses his/her own unique ideas. Predominated between 30-36 months.
Asymbolia
A form of aphasia that causes a person to have difficulty interpreting symbolic meanings of things such as images, gestures, and signs.
At Least
“At least” means minimum compliance.
At Risk
A term used to describe children vulnerable to problems with their development.
Ataxia
Disorder characterized by dyscoordination and tremors in fine and gross motor activity.
Atresia
Closure of the ear canal and/or absence of an ear opening.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder-Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive (ADHD PH-I)
ADHD-Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive is a subcategory of ADHD that is diagnosed when the characteristics of impulsivity and hyperactivity are met, but characteristic of inattention is lacking.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder-Predominantly Inattentive (ADHD-PI)
ADHD-Predominantly Inattentive is a subcategory of ADHD that is diagnosed when the characteristic of inattention is met, but the characteristics of hyperactivity and impulsivity are lacking.
Attentional Bias
The preference a person has to pay attention to certain objects, thoughts and activities that are of interest to them.
Attention
The ability to focus in an appropriate, sustained way on a particular task or activity.
- Focused– Active attention to one thing; being able to focus.
- Sustained– Ongoing attention to a stimulus; sustaining attention long enough to practice.
- Selective– The ability to avoid distractions; being able to overcome distractibility.
- Alternating– The ability to shift focus from one task to another; to attend to speech then to text then back to speech.
- Divided– The ability to attend to more than one task; to remember words while organizing them into a sentence.
Attention Deficit Disorder / Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD/ADHD)
ADD/ADHD in the DSM (Diagnostic Statistical Manuel) IV refers to 1) Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Combined Type, 2) Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder/Predominately Inattentive Type, or 3) Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder/Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive Type. Overall, behaviors include hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention, depending on the diagnosis. These behaviors must occur to a degree, which is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level, and occur in at least two settings over a period of at least 6 months. These behaviors may interfere with speech/language learning, academic performance and social activities (e.g., making friends, sustaining friendships. The disorder is diagnosed before the age of 7, or symptoms were present before this age. There must also be the presence of related impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning. For examples of related behaviors and symptoms of ADD/ADHD, please click on “Understanding” and then “Other Impairments and Disorders” at the top of this screen. Scroll down to ADD/ADHD.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder-Combined Type (ADHD-C)
ADHD-Combined Type is a subcategory of ADHD. It is characterized by having symptoms of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattention that differ from the developmental level of the child for at least the previous six months.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (ADHD-NOS)
ADHD-Not Otherwise Specified is a subcategory of ADHD. It is diagnosed when the impulsivity, inattention and hyperactivity symptoms are present but the person does not meet the specifications for the other diagnoses of ADHD.
Audio Loops / Induction Loops
Assistive listening device which enhances the use of hearing aids in schools, theaters, religious places, and public buildings and auditoriums. The ADA requires the inclusion of these systems in a host of public settings.
Audiogram
A graph which shows a person’s hearing acuity (level) at different pitches and loudness levels measured in decibels hearing level (dB HL) as a function of speech frequency measured in Hertz (Hz). All children with hearing and/or speech and/or language issues require an audiogram. Normal hearing is considered to be around 10-30 dB (decibels, a measure of loudness).
The one shown above (without the faces) and below (with faces) is a pure tone audiogram showing mild bilateral, high frequency hearing loss. Circles indicate right ear and crosses indicate left ear hearing thresholds. Hearing thresholds are considered normal if they are in the range -10 to +15 dB HL.
Audiologic Evaluation
Tests conducted by an audiologist to determine whether a hearing loss is present, what tones (pitches) are affected, how severe the hearing loss is, and the type of hearing loss. The evaluation also includes recommendations as to the hearing loss management, including selection of an appropriate amplification.
Audiological Assessment
A series of tests performed to identify pure-tone thresholds, impedance, speech recognition, and speech discrimination, which show the type and degree of hearing loss and status of outer, middle and inner ear function.
Audiologist
A professional who specializes in the identification, testing, habilitation and rehabilitation of hearing loss and hearing related disorders (e.g., central auditory processing disorder). A person who is also extensively trained in the anatomy and physiology of the auditory mechanism, counseling for hearing disorders, and diagnostic testing/fitting of hearing aids as well as assistive listening devices.
Audiology
Related service; includes identification, determination of hearing loss, and referral for habilitation of hearing.
Audiology Evaluation
A diagnostic test performed by a licensed Audiologist to determine the type and severity of a hearing loss.
Audition
The sense or act of hearing.
Auditory Perceptual Processing Disorder or Central Auditory
Also referred to as an auditory perceptual problem, central auditory dysfunction or central auditory processing disorder (CAPD). It can be defined as difficulty in listening to or comprehending auditory information, especially under less optimal listening conditions (e.g., background noise). It is a condition wherein a person does not process speech/language correctly. They may have difficulties knowing where sound has occurred and identifying the source of the sound or in distinguishing one sound from another. Children and adults with CAPD are diverse and have difficulty using auditory information to communicate and learn. For more information, please click on “Understanding” and then “Auditory Perceptual Processing Disorder” at the top of the screen.
Auditory Processing
The auditory system, mechanism, and processes responsible for the following: sound localization and lateralization, auditory discrimination, auditory pattern recognition, temporal aspects of audition, and auditory performance with competing acoustic signals. Auditory processing includes the following areas:
- Auditory Discrimination– the ability to differentiate between sounds and words… A child with auditory discrimination difficulties may have trouble detecting similarities and differences in words.
- Auditory Figure (ground)– the ability to distinguish sounds close by and those in the distance, to determine which sounds are more meaningful than other, and being able shut out a sound if it is not significant to the current situation. The child with auditory figure-ground problems might not be able to “listen” to the teacher’s voice because the hum of the air conditioner is too distracting. Or he might not realize that the siren on the police car coming around the corner is more important than the music in his headphones.
Auditory Processing Disorder
A. Impaired ability to attend, discriminate, recognize, or comprehend auditory information even though hearing and intelligence are within normal limits; more pronounced with distorted or competing speech, in noise, or in poor acoustic environments. Auditory processing abilities develop parallel with language, and children with auditory processing disorders are a subset of those with receptive and/or expressive language disorders. B. Any breakdown in an individual’s auditory skills that results in diminished learning though hearing, even though peripheral auditory sensitivity is normal.
Auditory Sequential Memory
Many children with a history of late-speaking and early speech and language difficulties approach secondary school age with adequate levels of speech and understanding but residual problems which perhaps only they, their parents and teachers can detect. It is not uncommon for reading and writing difficulties to persist after speech problems have; alongside general difficulties with memory and recall. By this stage, memory span is unfortunately unlikely to improve significantly. But if the children and those around them understand and attempt to work, much can be done to minimise the impact of a poor memory on day to day life.
Auditory Trainer
An assistive auditory device or FM system similar to a radio transmitter with a wireless microphone. The teacher or parent wears the microphone transmitter while the child wears the receiver which is set to amplify sound. The benefit is that the background room noise is not amplified, and the teacher/parent’s voice has direct access to the child from any location, even another room.
Auditory Training
A rehabilitative process of training a person with a hearing loss to listen to amplified sounds, recognize their meanings, and distinguish one sound from another.
Auditory-Verbal Therapists
The development of speech and verbal language through the maximized use of auditory potential by trained and licensed auditory/verbal therapists.
Auditory-Verbal Therapy
A method designed to teach a child to use the hearing provided by a hearing aid or a cochlear implant for understanding speech and learning to talk.
Auditory Comprehension
The ability to understand the speech of other people.
Auditory Discrimination
The ability to recognize and distinguish similarities and differences between speech sounds.
Auditory / Oral Education
An approach based on the principle that most deaf and hard-of-hearing children can be taught to listen and speak with early intervention and consistent training to develop their hearing potential. The focus of this educational approach is to use the auditory channel (or hearing) to acquire speech and oral language. The goal is for these children to grow up to become independent, participating citizens in mainstream society. Also known as Oral Deaf Education.
Auditory Memory
The ability to process and retain heard information for long enough to act on it. This will include short term memory (e.g. recalling information which was presented a few seconds ago), long term memory (e.g. recalling information which was presented a few minutes ago), and sequential information (e.g. recalling information in the proper order).
Auditory Perception
The ability to receive sounds accurately and understand what they mean when combined into words.
Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)
Augmentative and Alternative Communication, also known simply as AAC, refers to “…all forms of communication (other than oral speech) that are used to express thoughts, needs, wants, and ideas. We all use AAC when we make facial expressions or gestures, use symbols or pictures, or write” (ASHA Website). When SLPs are working with children, our number one goal is always communication. Sometimes, a child may have such a severe delay/disorder, that traditional oral speech is not possible or is not practical. In these circumstances, an SLP may work with a child and his family to come up with an AAC system to use instead of speech. It is very important to note, that these AAC methods are not used to replace speech. In many circumstances, AAC is used as a bridge to speech. Children can use the AAC methods to communicate while still working on developing speech skills (when appropriate).
Augmentative Communication Therapy
SLP’s assist clients in developing the use of alternate means of communication. This approach is appropriate when speech is severely impaired and cannot be used as the primary means of communication. Therapy involves getting input from the clients, families, the treatment team and significant others to identify communication needs, designing an alternative communication mode, and then training the family and individual to use it.
Aural
Refers to the ear or the sense of hearing.
Aural Habilitation
Training designed to help a person with hearing loss to make productive use of their residual hearing and listening abilities. It sometimes includes training in speechreading.
Aural Rehabilitation
SLP’s fit and dispense hearing aids and assistive listening devices when these are the option of choice for treating the communication problems that often accompany loss of hearing. They then provide auditory training and speech-reading therapy programs for people with hearing losses. They work with families of children with hearing loss to make sure these children have the best possible access to spoken communication.
Autism
People with autism have characteristic ways of behaving, communicating and thinking. Some of the most distinctive are listed below, though it is important to recognise that they vary from individual to individual. Many people are affected to such a mild degree that they need no special support other than understanding, tolerance and encouragement. Others have their lives disrupted severely, and will always need special support from others. Some autistic people have learning disabilities; others show high intelligence in learning and problem-solving; still others show isolated areas of high ability. Other difficulties may well accompany the autism: specific learning difficulties, specific language difficulties and dyspraxia are examples. However, the items in the list below are widely agreed to be the distinctive features of autism when they appear in combination.
Autism–Diagnostic Criteria “C”
Restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interest, or activity, encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest, abnormal either in intensity or focus. An apparently compulsive adherence to specific nonfunctional routines or rituals. Stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, complex whole body movements). Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.
Autism–Diagnostic Criteria “A”
Qualitative impairments in reciprocal social interaction: Marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body posture, and gestures to regulate social interaction. Failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level. Lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interest, or achievements with others. Lack of social or emotional reciprocity.
Autism–Diagnostic Criteria “B”
Qualitative impairments in communication: A delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime). Marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others despite adequate speech. Stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language. Lack of varied spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level.
Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
May also be referred to as pervasive developmental disorders. Autistic spectrum disorders include Asperger syndrome, autism, and pervasive developmental disorders–not otherwise specified. They are neurological in origin and symptoms appear in the first few years of life. The disorders share a set of behavioral characteristics, but each child/adult shows symptoms and characteristics very differently. Autism is referred to as a spectrum disorder to signify these differences among those sharing a common diagnosis.
Automaticity
The ability to do things automatically, without needing to use a significant amount of mental processes (e.g., counting numbers, reciting the alphabet, etc.). This is often the result of learning, repetition and practice.
Avoidance Behaviors
Avoidance behaviors are classified as a secondary behavior of stuttering. They are behaviors used to avoid the moment of stuttering; including circumlocution, interjections, the use of starter phrases, etc.
Babbling
Babbling refers to sounds and syllables an infant begins stringing together between 4-12 months of age. Babbling is referred to as a prelinguistic skill: meaning a skill that happens prior to the development of language and speech. There are actually three different types of babbling: Marginal, Reduplicated, and Nonreduplicated In typically developing infants there is a gradual emergence of increasingly complex and speech-like utterances during the first two years of life. This period of non referential vocalization is generally recognized as a foundation for meaningful speech and phonological development, and is called babbling.
Background / Ambient Noise
Environmental noise that competes with the main speech signal.
Backing
When sounds that should be made at the front of the mouth (such as ‘t’) are made at the back instead. An example would be saying ‘key’ for ‘tea.’ Backing can affect any of the obstruents shown on the place-voice-manner chart below (e.g., chew = coo or goo, ship = kip or gip). Backing is not seen in typical development in English, and is not a ‘natural’ or developmental process. Any child who is backing should be referred to a speech-language pathologist for assessment.
BAHA
A bone anchored hearing aid is a hearing device that transmits sound to the cochlea of the inner ear by vibrating the mastoid bone.
Barium Swallow Study
The use of videofluoroscopy to evaluate the pharyngeal swallow.
Baseline
An experienced team of therapists works with the client to probe all skill areas on the ABLLS curriculum. This begins when the client enrolls and takes approximately 30 days. The goal of establishing the ABLLS baseline is to determine what skills the child had before attending Partners and to determine a starting point for his/her programming.
Basic Concepts
These are the early opposites, e.g. clean / dirty, wet / dry, big / small, full / empty, top / bottom etc.
Basic Skills
Skills in subjects like reading, writing, spelling, and mathematics.
Beckman Oral Motor Intervention
Oral motor skills are critical to basic functions that occur even when we are asleep, such as controlling secretions, swallowing, and maintaining alignment of the oral structures so that breathing is not interrupted. Oral motor skills impact basic survival such as sucking and swallowing by infants that begin by the third month of gestation. Development of these skills enhance the progression from breast milk or formula, then to pureed foods, and on to table foods, as well as the skills needed to progress from sucking a nipple, to using a wide variety of utensils, including straws, cups, spoons, and forks. Oral skills also impact the control needed for speech development, from producing the cooing sounds as an infant, to articulating complex words in conversational speech. Poor oral motor skills can result in delayed or reduced skill development for the areas listed above. The individual may be described as hypersensitive, a lazy talker or a picky or messy eater. Problems such a drooling, bruxism (tooth grinding) and gagging may occur.
Behavior Management Plan
A behavioral management plan tries to prevent maladaptive behaviors, teaches socially acceptable behaviors to take the place of unpleasant behaviors, and creates a crisis intervention plan.
Behavior Modification
A systematic method of changing behavior through careful target selection, stimulation, client response and reinforcement.
Behavioral Contract
A contract between a child or adolescent and an adult or school. This contract explains the desired behavior that will be increased, as well as the reinforcer that will be given when that happens. In addition, inappropriate behavior is often listed, including the consequences for the behavior.
Behavioral Therapist
The Behavioral Therapist seeks to effect positive and lasting change by working with the client to modify their maladaptive thoughts and/or behaviors.
Behavior Disorder (BD)
See Emotional Disturbance.
Behavior Intervention Plan
A plan of positive behavioral interventions in the IEP of a child whose behaviors interfere with his/her learning or that of others.
Behavior Management
Strategies and techniques used by classroom teachers in order to manage the behavior of the students in the classroom and reduce classroom disruption.
Benchmark
A specific statement of what a child should know and be able to do in a specified segment of the year. Benchmarks describe how far the child is expected to progress toward the annual goal and by when. Benchmarks establish expected performance levels that allow for regular checks of progress that coincide with the reporting periods for informing parents of the child’s progress toward achieving the annual goals.
Bilabial
Pertaining to the two lips.
Bilateral hearing loss
A loss of hearing in both ears.
Bilingual
Ability to utilize two languages with equal facility.
Language Labels – Mother tongue, Home language, First language and L1 are all labels applied to the language a child hears in their home environment. Additional language, Second language and L2 are labels applied to the language a child hears in addition to their first language.
Routes to bilingualism – Different terms may be used to describe how a person becomes bilingual. Terms most commonly used are:
- Simultaneous Bilingualism – A child who has been exposed to two languages from birth or a very early age. This manner of bilingual language acquisition has been frequently studied but may not be the most common route to bilingualism.
- Sequential Bilingualism – A child who is exposed to an additional language after their first language. This manner of bilingual language acquisition has been less frequently studied but is thought to be the most common route to bilingualism.
Language Competence – The term ‘balanced bilingualism’ is sometimes used to describe a person who speaks all their languages equally well. Balanced bilingualism is often held to be the ideal. However, balanced bilingualism is rare, and people with different levels of competence in each language should not be viewed negatively.
Additional Language Learning – Children and adults may acquire an additional language after they have acquired their first language. This language learning process is different to first language acquisition. As the person has already demonstrated that they have acquired their first language without difficulty, additional language difficulties should be regarded as educational issues rather than a primary language disorder. The term EAL refers to English as an additional language. This is where a person learns English after learning their first language. This term should be avoided as the additional language may not be English. For example, in Wales, a person may learn English first at home and then acquire Welsh as an additional language.
Codeswitching – Codeswitching (also called code mixing and language mixing) is where a bilingual person uses two (or more) languages together. ‘Code’ is a linguistic term for a language. In intersentential codeswitching a bilingual person uses one language for one sentence, followed by another language for the next. In intrasentential codeswitching a bilingual person uses both languages within the same sentence. Codeswitching is normal and not a sign of confusion. There is evidence that children who have specific language impairment do not use codeswitching even when it is common to do so in their community.
Binaural Hearing Aids
Hearing aids worn in both ears. See Hearing Aid.
Bite
The forcible closure of the lower teeth against the upper teeth; to seize or grasp with the teeth.
- Mature– The teeth close easily on the food, biting through it gradually.
- Phasic– A rhythmical bite and release pattern seen as a series of jaw openings and closings occurring when the gums or teeth are stimulated. Present at birth and continues until 3 to 5 months of age in the typical infant.
- Tonic– A forceful or tense biting pattern that interferes with all aspects of feeding.
Blends
Two or more consonant sounds made next to each other with no vowel separation (/tr/, /pl/, /str/). See also Consonant Cluster.
Block
In stuttering, the stoppage or obstruction at one or several locations – larynx, lips, tongue, etc.- experienced by the stutterer when trying to talk which temporarily prevents smooth sound production. Examples include:
Block with Posturing– A cessation of airflow observed with open mouth postured in the position for the initial sound of the word.
Body Movement
Movement of the body while speaking or while avoiding or escaping a block.
Body Posture
Nonverbal expressions used to show emotion or convey information.
Bolus
The rounded mass of food prepared by the mouth for swallowing (after chewing).
Bone Conduction
An evaluative measure performed during diagnostic audiologic testing where sound is delivered via a bone oscillator. This technique helps determine whether the hearing loss is conductive or sensorineural. Contrasts with Air Conduction.
Braille
Unless otherwise specified, a tactile system of reading and writing for individuals with visual impairments, commonly known as standard English Braille.
Broca’s Area
An area in the dominant cerebral hemisphere, responsible for motor planning for speech and other aspects of expressive language.
Bruxism (BRUK-siz-um)
Bruxism is a condition in which you grind, gnash or clench your teeth. If you have bruxism, you may unconsciously clench your teeth together during the day, or clench or grind them at night (sleep bruxism). Sleep bruxism is considered a sleep-related movement disorder. People who clench or grind their teeth (brux) during sleep are more likely to have other sleep disorders, such as snoring and pauses in breathing (sleep apnea). Mild bruxism may not require treatment. However, in some people, bruxism can be frequent and severe enough to lead to jaw disorders, headaches, damaged teeth and other problems. Because you may have sleep bruxism and be unaware of it until complications develop, it’s important to know the signs and symptoms of bruxism and to seek regular dental care.
California Speech and Hearing Association
The State of California’s professional, scientific, and credentialing association for audiologists, speech-language pathologists, and speech, language, and hearing scientists.
Carryover
The regular use of newly learned speech or language skills in everyday situations. Also called “generalization.”
Case Conference
An informal meeting where information about a child’s IEP is reviewed to resolve problems.
Cause-Effect
Performing one behavior in order to achieve a further objective, e.g. hitting a switch to activate a toy.
Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD)
Challenges in the ability to understand speech and language in a person who does not have a hearing impairment. See Auditory Processing Disorder.
Central Hearing Loss
Damage to the eighth nerve in the brain stem causing hearing loss.
Cerebral Palsy
A condition that a child is usually born with, that is associated with brain damage, particularly with loss of oxygen to the brain. The child does not have typical muscle tone, many have difficulty with moving around and use a wheelchair or other aid. Usually speech is affected due to the changes in tone.
Certificate of Clinical Competency (CCC)
The initials CCC stand for Certificate of Clinical Competency. If a speech-language pathologist who is certified by the American Speech-Language Hearing Association (ASHA) has these initials after his or her name, they have (1) received a masters degree in Speech-Language Pathology (2) passed a national exam in speech/language pathology, (3) completed a 9 month clinical fellowship year (CFY) under a qualified supervisor.
Chaining
The process in which each step of a sequence is taught individually and then each step is chained together to achieve the complex task that is being taught. The steps can either be forward or backward chained.
Change of Placement for Discipline
A removal from school for disciplinary reasons is considered a change of placement when the removal is for more than 10 school days in a row in the same school year; or the removals suggest a pattern:
- Because the series of removals add up to more than 10 school days in a school year;
- Because the child’s behavior is very similar to the behavior in previous instances that resulted in the series of removals; and
- Because of additional factors, such as the length of each removal, the total amount of time the child has been removed, and the closeness of the removals to one another.
Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)
A behavioral rating scale used by parents and teachers to evaluate behavior and social skills in a standardized format.
Child Find
Requirement that states ensure that all children with disabilities are identified, located and evaluated, and determine which children are receiving special education and related services.
Child with a Disability
A child evaluated in accordance with Rule 3301-51-06 of the Administrative Code as having a cognitive disability (mental retardation), a hearing impairment (including deafness), a speech or language impairment, a visual impairment (including blindness), a serious emotional disturbance (referred to in this rule simply as “emotional disturbance”), an orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, another health impairment, a specific learning disability, deaf-blindness, or multiple disabilities, and who, by reason thereof, needs special education and related services. (a) Subject to 3301-51-01 of the Administrative Code, paragraph (B)(10)(b), if it is determined, through an appropriate evaluation under rule 3301-51-06 of the Administrative Code, that a child has one of the disabilities identified in this rule, but needs only a related service and not special education, the child is not a child with a disability under this rule. (b) If, consistent with the definition of special education in paragraph (B)(58), the individualized education program (IEP) team considers the related service required by the child to be special education rather than a related service under state standards, the child would be determined to be a child with a disability under this rule. (c) Children aged 3 through 5 years who are experiencing developmental delays. “Child with a disability” for children aged 3 through 5 years, may, subject to the conditions described in rule 3301-51-03 of the Administrative Code for the use of the term developmental delay, include a child: (i) Who is experiencing developmental delays, as defined by rule 3301-51- 11 of the Administrative Code and as measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures, in one or more of the following areas: physical development, cognitive development, communication development, social or emotional development, or adaptive development, as provided by rule 3301-51-11 of the Administrative Code; and (ii) Who, by reason thereof, needs special education and related services.
Childhood Apraxia of Speech (CAS)
Childhood Apraxia of Speech, or CAS, is a motor speech disorder. Children with CAS have difficulty producing sounds, syllables and words. For reasons unknown, the brain has difficulty with planning and executing the fine motor movements needed for speech. The child knows what he wants to say, but the brain is having difficulty coordinating or “talking to” if you will, the parts of the parts of the body that are used to produce speech sounds (i.e. the vocal folds, lips, jaw, tongue and palate). Basically the part of the brain that is responsible for controlling the parts of the body responsible for speech production is either not fully developed or damaged. CAS is NOT due to muscle weakness or paralysis (which is seen in another motor speech disorder, dysarthria).
Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD)
A non-profit organization committed to helping both people with ADHD and their families.
Children’s Developmental Services Agency (CDSA)
A government agency that assists with therapy services for children.
Chronological Age (CA)
An individual actual age; usually stated in exact years and months (e.g., 8.11 means a child is eight years and eleven months old).
Circumlocution
The use of indirect language or roundabout expressions. People with aphasia may circumlocute, talking around a word that they cannot recall or say. This should not be confused with the aphasia word recall technique of self cuing (an example of the technique is: “It’s cold….I put in my drink …it’s ice… I need an ice cube.”).
Clarification Strategies
Identifying why a message has not been understood and then requesting a change in the behavior of the person giving the message itself to enable understanding e.g. speaking more loudly or more slowly, repeating, rephrasing, adding more specific information etc.
Classroom Management
Strategies and techniques used by people in a professional setting or school in order to maintain surroundings that are advantageous to leaning and success in the classroom.
Cleft; Cleft Lip / Cleft Lip and Palate / Cleft Palate
Parts of the upper lip, palate (roof of the mouth) that have not connected properly during pregnancy leaving a gap. A cleft is a birth defect caused by failure of the mouth parts to fuse during early fetal development. Some babies are born with cleft lip only, and this may be unilateral (affecting one side of the lip) or bilateral (affecting both sides). Some children are born with unilateral or bilateral cleft palate. Some are born with any combination of cleft lip/palate types.
Clinical Fellowship Year (CFY)
An important transitional phase between supervised graduate-level practicum and the independent delivery of services. It is designed to foster the continued growth and integration of the knowledge, skills, and tasks of clinical practice in speech-language pathology consistent with ASHA’s current scope of practice. The CFY lasts a continuous 9 months while maintaining full-time employment (30+ hours a week).
Closed Head Injury
An injury to the head during which the skull and brain are never penetrated.
Cluster Reduction / Cluster Simplification
Cluster Reduction, sometimes called Cluster Simplification, is a phonological process (phonological pattern) in which a consonant cluster is omitted (e.g., ‘oo’ for ‘blue’), reduced (e.g., ‘boo’ for ‘blue’) or replaced with another sound (e.g., ‘woo’ for ‘blue’) or replaced with another cluster (e.g., ‘dwoo’ for ‘blue’).
Cluttering
Dysfluent speech that is characterized by overuse of fillers and circumlocutions associated with word finding difficulties, rapid speech, and word and phrase repetitions. Cluttering does not seem to contain the fear of words or situations found in stuttering.
Coach
A person who assists a person with aphasia with engaging in the hours of daily practice and conversation necessary for maximal recovery. See Practice Coach.
Coarticulation
Articulatory movements for one phone which are carried over into the production of previous or subsequent phones, but which do not affect the primary place of articulation, as occurs when assimilation affects the place of articulation.
Cochlear Implant
A medical device that allows some people with hearing loss to hear sounds, including speech. This is done by bypassing damaged structures in the inner ear and directly stimulating the auditory nerve.
Cognition
The mental process involved in thought. Cognition includes thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, problem solving, executive function, attention, memory, etc. Recent research has confirmed that improving cognitive skills in incisive ways will improve aphasia.
Cognitive
A descriptive term encompassing the mental processes of knowing, perceiving, remembering, judging, and reasoning.
Cognitive Communication Therapy
SLP’s assist clients in developing or re-establishing cognitive abilities that are necessary for effective thinking and communication. This therapy is particularly appropriate for clients who have sustained traumatic brain injury.
Cognitive Disability
(Mental retardation) means significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
Cognitive Flexibility
The ability to adapt thinking to new and unexpected happenings, including the ability to consider a variety of solutions to a problem or to come up with multiple ways to interpret an event.
Cognitive Restructuring
Changing negative thinking brought about by earlier life experiences.
Cohesion
The links that hold a conversation, statement or narrative together. They guide listeners or conversational partners and show how parts of a story or conversation relate to each other.
Collaboration / Consultation
To work together. Two or more equal partners voluntarily working side by side with mutual respect and cooperation to reach a common goal through shared decision making. It can also be referred to as a process in which one or more professionals assist other individuals to address a problem a child may be experiencing.
Commenting
Talking about what the child is doing or is involved in – avoiding the use of excessive questioning.
Common Core Standards
The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) are a coherent progression of learning expectations in English language arts and mathematics designed to prepare K–12 students for college and career success. The CCSS communicate what is expected of students at each grade level, putting students, parents, teachers, and school administrators on the same page, working toward shared goals. Arizona has adopted the Common Core State Standards.
Communication
A. The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior. B. Interpersonal rapport. C. communications (used with a sing. or pl. verb). The art and technique of using words effectively and with grace in imparting one’s ideas.
Communication Board
An apparatus used by a person with limited verbal expression to communicate his or her needs, thoughts, and ideas. It may contain the letters of the alphabet, numbers, or commonly used words and phrases.
Communication Disorder
An impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, or comprehend concepts of verbal, nonverbal, or graphic symbol systems.
Communication Environment
Who you are talking to and where you talk to them.
Communication Temptation
A communication temptation is an activity or situation that is set up to “tempt” your child to use language.
Comorbidity
Two or more disorders occurring in the same person.
Compensatory Strategies
Learning new ways to complete a task. For example, if you are having difficulty saying long sentences then you can “compensate” by saying several shorter sentences instead.
Complaint (Due Process)
A formal written document (a form) that a parent or other party files with the Ohio Department of Education, Office for Exceptional Children, that claims that a school district or other public agency is not following laws or regulations related to a child qualifying for or receiving special education and related services.
Complete Assistance
The student performs less than 25% of task by self.
Complete Independence
The student is able to complete the prescribed activity with age appropriate independence in a timely and safe manner.
Complex Syndrome
A specifically identified combination of problems that occur together in ways that are predictable.
Comprehension
Understanding what is said, signed or written. Also referred to as Receptive Language.
Comprehensive Assessment
An assessment process evaluating a students complete skill set, including behaviors, skills, as well as emotions. This is also known as a full and individual evaluation.
Comprehension / Receptive Language Difficulties
Many children whose development of speech and language gives cause for concern have difficulties understanding what is said to them. That is, their understanding of spoken language falls below the level expected for their age. Difficulties with comprehension are sometimes known as “receptive language difficulties”. For these children it is important to consider listening and speaking skills separately, as the two will not be working together effectively. Unless and until they are, a child’s ability to learn will be seriously impaired, for understanding of language is fundamental to learning and to understanding the world. Many skills are involved in language comprehension including:
- Ability to hear. Some children have intermittent hearing loss which can affect understanding of language.
- Ability to pay attention to speech sounds. Some children have difficulty in establishing and maintaining their attention in certain situations or the control of their attention may be less than expected of a child of their age.
- Ability to distinguish between speech sounds.
- Ability to process language. Some children have difficulty in “taking in” language – it takes them longer to understand what is being said.
- Memory for strings of speech sounds.
- Knowledge of word meanings.
- Knowledge of sentence structure.
- Ability to make sense of language in and out of context.
- Difficulties with sight.
There can be difficulties with any one of these skills – this should be borne in mind during an assessment. Identification of a child’s difficulties may not be straightforward as there are many ways in which a child can understand or even anticipate what is required of them without actually understanding what has been said. Gestures, facial expression, contextual clues can all supply vital information. On the other hand, such children may show behaviour difficulties or apparent lack of interest. This is likely to be more so in situations which make explicit demands on understanding of spoken language. Research has shown that difficulties in understanding are more widespread that was previously thought. Even children whose difficulties appear to be limited to expressive language may have subtle but significant receptive language difficulties.
Compulsions
Deliberate, repetitive behaviors or actions with a set of rules for completion. May involve counting or cleaning and can be identified early through restricted patterns of interest.
Concentration
Focusing on a specific thought or action.
Conditioned Orientation Reflex (COR)
The audiologist teaches the young child to look toward a toy that lights up or moves when the child looks toward it in response to a sound.
Conduct Disorder (CD)
A behavioral disorder that is characterized by behavior problems, including non-compliant and impulsive behavior, aggressive behavior towards both people and/or animals, theft and other destructive actions.
Conductive Hearing Impairment
Hearing loss caused by dysfunction of the outer or middle ear. Impairment of hearing due to the failure of sound waves to reach the inner ear through the normal air conduction channels of the outer and middle ear. In children, conductive loss is often medically correctable.
Conductive Hearing Loss
A hearing loss taking place in the middle ear, which disrupts the transmission of sound coming from the environment traveling to the middle ear.
Confidential File
File maintained by the school that contains evaluations conducted to determine whether child is handicapped, other information related to special education placement; parents have a right to inspect the file and have copies of any information contained in it.
Congenital
A. Existing at or before birth. B. Acquired at birth or during uterine. Developmental, as a result of either hereditary or environmental influences. Constructive Play “Manipulation of objects for the purpose of constructing or creating something (Rubin, 1984). Children use materials to achieve a specific goal in mind that requires transformation of objects into a new configuration. Usually emerges around two years of age and predominates from age three on.
Congenital Hearing Loss
Hearing loss present at birth or associated with the birth process, or which develops in the first few days of life.
Connectionist Theory
A theory which suggests that persons with aphasia and apraxia recover for the most part by reconnecting residual speech and language skills. It contrasts in some important ways with learning theory used in the educational field.
Consent
Requirement that the parent be fully informed of all information that relates to any action that school wants to take about the child, that parent understands that consent is voluntary and may be revoked at any time.
Consonant
A consonant is a speech sound in which the airstream is obstructed (at the place of articulation).
Consonant Chart
The most familiar consonant chart (or phonetic chart) is the one provided by the IPA. It is a grid with manner of articulation on the vertical axis and place of articulation on the horizontal axis. Each cell of the grid has one or two symbols. Where there are two symbols in a cell the one on the left is a voiceless consonant and the one on the right is a voiced consonant. A consonant chart is different from a Place-Voice-Manner Chart (PVM Chart).
Consonant Cluster
A consonant cluster, or ‘cluster’, is a sequence of two or more consonants. For example, /fl/ in ‘flower’ and /skw/ in ‘square’. Some speech pathologists call consonant clusters ‘blends’ which is a term more correctly applied to letter sequences in written language.
Consonant Harmony
Consonant Harmony is a phonological process (or phonological pattern) in which one sound influences the way another sound in a word is pronounced. For example if a child says ‘tittytat’ for ‘kittycat’ the /t/ in ‘kitty’ and /t/ in ‘cat’ had impacted the production of the two instances of /k/, so that all the voiceless stops in ‘kittycat’ (both k’s and both t’s) are produced as /t/.
Contingency Plan
A strategy used to give reinforcement to a student for targeted behaviors based upon clear expectations. The student has been told what the expected behavior is, as well as the reinforcement that will be given for appropriate behavior.
Cooperative Play
When children plan, assign roles and play together it is referred to as cooperative play. Cooperative play is goal-oriented and children play in an organized manner toward a common end. Emerges around 36 to 48 months of age and continues through the school years.
Core Academic Subject
English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts, history and geography. This term does not refer to “Ohio Core Curriculum.”
Core Behaviors
The core behaviors of stuttering, which are the types of dysfluencies a person who stutters cannot control, including repetitions, prolongations and blocks.
Core Speech Assessment Battery
The core speech assessment battery starts with an audiogram administered by an audiologist, an oral musculature examination performed by the speech-language pathologist/speech and language therapist (SLP/SLT), and a detailed history taken by the SLP/SLT. Then follow the independent and relational analyses, with the SLP/SLT exercising clinical judgment with regard to how detailed these need to be.
Independent Analysis (Inventories and Constraints)– This analysis provides a view of the child’s unique system without reference to the target (adult) phonology. It comprises the inventories of ‘what’s there’ in the child’s system, and a listing of the constraints, or what’s missing from the child’s system.
Relational Analysis (Percentages)– The relational analysis provides a normative comparison between the child’s speech sound system and an idealized version of the target (adult) system. It comprises the Percentage of Consonants Correct (PCC) in single words and conversational speech (if possible), the Percentage of Vowels Correct (PVC) in single words and conversational speech (if possible), a phonological analysis, a phonotactic analysis, and a syllable stress pattern inventory.
Not all errors will necessarily be of one type– Some children experience more than one type of problem concurrently. In the same child, some errors may have: a phonetic basis; a phonological basis; a perceptual basis; an anatomic/structural basis; a motor planning basis; or, a motor execution basis.
Further Evaluation– The outcome of the Core Speech Assessment Battery may prompt more assessment to rule in/out, for example, perceptual difficulties, motor speech disorder (a dysarthria and /or CAS), or to take an in-depth exploration of the child’s stimulability. See Stimulability.
Core Vocabulary
Highly functional, meaningful, high-frequency words and phrases.
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)
Organization of people, including teachers and parents, working toward improving the education of children with disabilities and/or talents and gifts. This group advocates for governmental policies, as well as helping to set professional standards and providing professional development and resources for people with disabilities.
Counseling services
Related service; includes services provided by social workers, psychologists, guidance counselors, or other qualified personnel.
County Board of Developmental Disabilities (DD)
A county board of developmental disabilities, as provided by section 5126.02 of the Revised Code.
Cue Fading
Therapy technique in which cues or prompts are slowly withdrawn to encourage the child’s independent response.
Cued Speech
Method of communication that combines speech reading with a system of handshapes placed near the mouth to help deaf or hard-of-hearing individuals differentiate words that look similar on the lips (e.g., bunch vs. punch) or are hidden (e.g., gag).
Cueing
A function to assist or obtain a desired response, e.g. giving the command “Sit in the chair” while pointing to the chair.
Cumulative file
General file maintained by the school; parent has right to inspect the file and have copies of any information contained in it.
Daily Behavior Report Card (DBRC)
A method of communication between teachers and parents every day in which the behaviors of the child throughout the day are reported. It helps to inform parents of child’s progress so they are able to create realistic educational goals, as well as decipher if the teachers methods are effective.
Day
A calendar day, unless otherwise indicated as business day or school day. Business Day: – Monday through Friday, except for federal and state holidays (unless holidays are specifically included in the designation of business day). School Day – Any day, including a partial day that children are in attendance at school for instructional purposes. School day has the same meaning for all children in school, including children with and without disabilities.
Deaf
A severe to profound hearing loss in which the auditory system provides little or no access to the world.
Deaf-Blindness
Concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs designed solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.
Deafness
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act disability category; impairment in processing information through hearing that adversely affects educational performance
Decibel (dB)
The unit of measurement for the loudness or volume (intensity) of sound. The higher the dB, the louder the sound.
Decoding
The process through which meaning is extracted from written letters. Decoding is essential to reading.
Deduction
The ability to use given information in order to solve a problem. Deduction produces new information (M Johnson). At 6 years of age children can typically cope with a simple and visually concrete deduction.
Deficit
A deficiency or impairment in mental or physical functioning.
Deglutition
The act of swallowing.
Delay or Disorder
Technically, a delay would refer to a child whose development is following the “typical or normal patterns” but she is developing those skills at a slower rate than her peers. A disorder then, would be classified as a child whose development is NOT following the “typical or normal” patterns (i.e. abnormally). However, some people use these terms interchangeably or two professionals may not totally agree on whether a child’s development is delayed or disordered. But typically, a delay=normal development at a slower rate than expected and disorder=abnormal development.
Dementia
General mental deterioration due to organic or psychological factors, characterized by disorientation, impaired memory, judgment and intellect, and a shallow labile affect.
Dental
A dental consonant is one in which there is approximation or contact between the teeth and another articulator. The dental consonants in English may be labiodental like /f/ as in ‘phone’ and /v/ as in ‘veil’ with contact between the top teeth and lower lip, or interdental like the ‘th-sounds’, /θ/ as in ‘think’ and /ð/ as in ‘them’.
The place-voice-manner (PVM) chart below shows four dental consonants: the voiceless and voiced labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/ and the voiceless and voiced interdental fricatives (the ‘th’ sounds).
Dental Arch
Curved structure formed by the teeth in their normal position.
Dentition
Natural teeth, considered collectively, in the dental arch.
Descriptions
This is a strategy that can be used to help children learn language (like Self Talk and Parallel Talk). This is when you simply describe an object that your child is playing with or looking at. Say you are at the farm…you may label and describe the different animals to your child: “Look at that cow! He is white with black spots!” or “There is a pig. He is big, fat and pink and likes rolling in mud.”
Destruction
Physical destruction or removal of personal identifiers from information so that the information is no longer personally identifiable.
Developmental Speech Disorder
Children who do not develop speech production skills appropriately or according to normative data are speech delayed or disordered.
Developmental Stages
Critical stages in a child’s life where certain needs, behaviors, experiences and capabilities are common within a certain age period.
Developmental Verbal Dyspraxia (DVD)
A motor speech disorder affecting the planning and co-ordination of muscle movements. Speech may be characterized by inconsistent use of sounds, visible groping for sounds, inability to articulate sound sequences when asked to do so on command, after imitation and difficulties increasing with length and complexity of sound sequence. See Childhood Apraxia of Speech.
Developmental
Having to do with the stages and steps involved in the growth of a child.
Developmental Aphasia
A severe language disorder that is presumed to be due to brain injury rather than because of a developmental delay in the normal acquisition of language.
Developmental Apraxia of Speech
A disorder that affects motor planning for the production of speech.
Developmental Articulatory Dyspraxia
Articulatory verbal dyspraxia is a condition where the child has difficulty making and co-ordinating the precise movements which are used in the production of spoken language although there is no damage to muscles or nerves. A child with dyspraxia may have difficulty producing individual sounds as well as in co-ordinating the sequence of sounds necessary for making words, or co-ordinating the increasingly complex sequences used in words, phrases and sentences.
Developmental Delay
Classification for children with or without established diagnosis who performs significantly behind developmental norms. A measurable delay means that a significant difference exists between the child’s age-expected level of development (adjusted for prematurity, if applicable) and the child’s current level of functioning.
Developmental Disability
Developmental Disabilities in infants and toddlers are displayed as significant differences between expected level of development for age and current level of functioning. Children with developmental disabilities are those who have a delay in one or more of the following areas: cognitive development; physical and motor development, including vision and hearing; communication development; social or emotional development; or adaptive development.
Developmental Language Disorder
Children who do not develop language skills appropriately or according to language norms are language delayed or disordered.
Developmental Language Disorder-Mixed
Children with developmental speech and language disorders have difficulty producing speech sounds, using spoken language to communicate, and/or understanding what other people are saying. This type of language disorder is often more indicative of a broader learning disability or even autism, which will become more evident as children reach elementary-school age. Children can be specifically classified as having a Developmental Articulation Disorder, Expressive, and/or Receptive Language Disorder.
Developmental Milestones
A set of functional skills or tasks that most children can do at a certain age range.
Developmental Patterns / Developmental Processes
Developmental patterns or developmental processes are speech simplifications produced by children that are found in typical development. They include Final consonant deletion, Reduplication Weak syllable deletion, Cluster reduction, Context sensitive voicing, Depalatalization, Fronting (fricatives, velars), Alveolarization (stops. fricatives), Labialization (stops), Stopping (fricatives, affricates), Gliding (fricatives, liquids), Deaffrication, Epenthesis , Metathesis and Migration.
Deviation
In statistics, the amount by which a measure differs from a point of reference, generally from the mean.
Diadochokinesis
In speech, the ability to execute rapid repetitive movements of the articulators.
Diadochokinetic Rate
The speed with which one can perform contrasting (or repetitive) movements, as in saying the following syllables: puh-tuh-kuh.
Diagnosis
A. The act or process of identifying or determining the nature and cause of a disease or injury through evaluation of patient history, examination, and review of other significant data. B. The opinion derived from such an evaluation.
Diagnosis of Hearing Loss
Test hearing to determine if a hearing loss exists, the extent of the loss and the nature (site-of-lesion) of the loss.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IVTR)
The classification of mental disorders written by the American Psychiatric Association. This manual is used by various health care professionals and insurance companies across a wide range of settings.
Dialect
Variation of speech within a specific language.
Difference
Distinct or different variations of a language. (Related to speech production—an accent or dialect for example.)
Differential Reinforcement
Reinforcement of one behavior and not another.
Diodochokinesis (DDK)
A task involving repetition of movements requiring alternating contraction of various muscles associated with speech (pah-tah-kah).
Diphthong
A diphthong is like a two-part vowel containing a glide from one vowel quality to another, as in ‘fear’ (‘fee-uh’) and ‘tour’ (‘too-uh’).
Disability
In Section 504 and ADA, defined as impairment that substantially affects one or more major life activities; an individual who has a record of having such impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment.
Discourse
Verbal exchanges between speakers on a shared topic.
Discrete Trial Training
Discrete trial training (DTT) is a method of behavioral intervention. DTT programs generally involve several hours of direct one-on-one instruction per day over many months or years and teach specific skills in an intensive manner. The discrete trial method has four distinct parts (according to Anderson et al, 1996): (1) the trainer’s presentation, (2) the child’s response, (3) the consequence, (4) a short pause between the consequence and the next instruction (between interval trials). In general, DTT programs target skills that are broken down into finite, discrete tasks. The behavioral therapist typically uses repetition, feedback, and positive reinforcer to help the child master small tasks. Once mastered, basic skills are used as building blocks to develop more complex abilities. Behavioral excesses such as tantrumming, aggression, and repetitive behaviors, may also be addressed. Not all programs using DTT follow the same program sequences or curriculum.
Discriminative Stimulus (Sd)
An Sd is the instruction given to the client. It may be verbal or non-verbal. For example:
| “Clap your hands” |
(child claps hands) |
| “What is your mom’s name?” |
(Child responds “Sally”) |
| A red stoplight |
(driver stops car) |
Disorder
An ailment or condition that affects the function of mind or body. The words “disorder” and “delay” are often used interchangeably; however, it is clearer to differentiate between the two. An articulation or language “disorder” is often more severe and will require therapeutic intervention to correct or improve. Children with speech “disorders” have different (non-typical) types of speech or language errors that would not be heard in a younger child with a “delay.” Children do not grow out of speech or language “disorders,” and require speech-language therapy to address communication needs. Only a certified speech-language pathologist can distinguish the difference between a “disorder” and a “delay.”
Disproportionality
Disproportionate representation of racial and ethnic groups who are placed in special education and related services; identified in specific disability categories that is the result of inappropriate identification. ODE uses risk ratios to identify disproportionate representation of racial and ethnic groups across all disability categories combined. (Ohio’s State Performance Plan)
Distinctive Features
Characteristics of a sound that make it unique and different from all the other speech sounds in our language. For example, the sound /b/ is made in the front of your mouth, with your “voice on” and your lips popping apart. Also, the name of a treatment approach for Phonological Disorders (see below)
Distortion
Errors in speech in which the sounds are not produced clearly, they may be slurred or imprecise.
Distractibility
When attention is difficult to sustain, and when it is challenging for a person to maintain focus on one subject or activity. The inability to resist switching attention from one object or event to another, so that it disrupts to a persons concentration. Also, constantly having to attend to many different objects in the same area, and having a challenging time deciding which are the most important.
Divergent Thinking
The ability to explore various possible solutions. See also Cognitive Flexibility. These are important skills for a person to have in order to take advantage of his/her full vocabulary.
Down Syndrome
A congenital disorder, caused by the presence of an extra critical portion of the 21st chromosome in all, or some, of one’s cells. This additional genetic material changes the developmental course, causing the characteristics associated with the syndrome. Those affected usually have mild to moderate mental retardation.
The following is a list of some problems which may be associated with the speech and language of individuals with Down’s syndrome. Not all of these will be identified in every individual with the syndrome, and their influence will also vary depending on the individual’s stage of development, the severity of the problem itself, or both.
- The palate may be high arched and narrow.
- The tongue may be large for the area it occupies, with reduced muscle tone and sometimes fissured. Tongue co-ordination, speed and accuracy of movement may be reduced, which influences sound production, clarity and speed of utterances.
- Intermittent ‘glue ear’ produces hearing loss which is usually more severe during winter months. Some individuals with Down’s syndrome, just as some people in the general population, may have a sensory-neural hearing impairment.
- Children with Down’s syndrome find auditory processing difficult. This is the process by which we make sense of what we hear. Children with Down’s syndrome appear to have problems in listening, retaining what they hear and decoding or translating it. All three processes are needed to learn language and use it appropriately.
- Memory, particularly recalling what they have heard, can be slow to develop and often requires practice to extend.
- Difficulties with receptive language – the recall and the decoding of what we hear – make understanding more difficult. Understanding is made easier if information is related to the individual’s immediate situation, rather than about another place or time.
- Hearing and auditory processing problems may also mean that an individual with Down’s syndrome may not recognise changes made to words which alter meaning (morphology), such as the addition of ‘s’, ‘ing’, ‘ed’, and so on.
- The sounds of speech (phonology) are often produced less clearly because of the structure of the mouth, lower muscle tone in the tongue, hearing difficulties and slow processing skills.
- Comprehension of abstract information, subtle language, alteration marked by changes in stress, tone, use of inference, innuendo or sarcasm, etc. may be very difficult for even adults with Down’s syndrome to recognise.
- Expressive language is slower to develop and, as with understanding, is often context bound. Physical and processing problems influence content and clarity. Gestures or signs that have been individually devised or learned may be used. Early attempts at verbal communication may produce partial attempts at words only. These are often followed by clear words mixed with unclear verbalisations which use sentence-like stress, intonation and pauses.
- A number of people with Down’s syndrome show a degree of dysfluency. This is often intermittent, and varies from the rhythmical, relaxed repetition of words and syllables, to tense blocks on sounds or words.
- Voice quality sometimes appears deeper in tone, and may sound rather less modulated to the listener.
- The visual processing of people with Down’s syndrome is often an area of strength. This may appear to be a strange area to be discussed in a glossary about speech and language. However, individuals do tend to use their visual processing strength to compensate for their rather weaker auditory channel. This point may be useful in teaching. However, a high proportion of people with Down’s syndrome require glasses, and so their visual acuity will need checking if the visual channel is to augment auditory input.
This is not a complete list of all the areas in which children and adults with Down’s syndrome may have difficulties. They will all have some problems with the development of speech and language. The extent and type of problem depends on the individual people, as does the type and extent of intervention to help them.
Drill
Repetitive practice of speech targets.
Due Process
This is a formal, legal way to resolve a dispute between parents and the school system about a child’s educational program.
Due Process Hearing
A formal hearing that is held at the request of a parent or public agency to resolve a due process complaint related to a child qualifying for or receiving special education and related services.
Dyad
Two children interacting.
Dynamic Aphasia
An inability to mentally select from competing verbal choices. People with dynamic aphasia complain of too many words to choose from as they try to talk.
Dysarthria
Dysarthria is a condition affecting speech production. It results in weakness, paralysis, or slurred speech due to weak or imprecise movements of the speech organs. These can include the articulatory organs of the lips, tongue and jaw, the larynx, the control of the airstream on which speech is produced through the respiratory tract and the movement of the soft palate and pharynx.
The involvement of these different parts of the speech production and mechanism may vary. Dysarthria occurs in a number of neurological conditions and can be the result of brain dysfunction or injury. This means that it may be part of a developmental speech condition (present from birth) or an acquired condition (as a result of the onset of a particular neurological condition or after brain injury).
Dysarthria can range in severity from mild, through moderate to severe. Speech patterns may have a number of different characteristics depending on the nature of the damage to the brain. The speed of speech production may be affected. Most commonly speech is slow, but sometimes quick involuntary movements affect speech production. All movements may be slow and limited in range. Those with very severe dysarthria may have no movement at all in some organs which are required to move in a controlled way for clear speech production.
Where dysarthria is associated with cerebral palsy, or head injury, there may also be difficulties in language understanding or general learning. It is important to understand these as they may influence the approach taken for education or speech and language therapy.
Dysarthrias
A group of motor speech disorders resulting from damage to the brain or nervous system, which leads to abnormalities in the muscle movements for speech. This includes muscle strength and tone, range of motion, speed and precision of movement. People with dysarthria may have difficulty being understood by others, because of disturbances in their speech, which may affect articulation, voice, rhythm, resonance, and breathing in various ways.
Dyscalculia
A severe difficulty in understanding and using symbols or functions needed for success in mathematics.
Dysfluency (or Stammering)
The “smoothness” of speech, dysfluent speech may be referred to as stuttering (see below). This is measured by sound/word/phrase repetitions, sound elongations, interruption of airflow and other measures. See also Stuttering.
Dysgraphia
Impaired ability to write, that is typically due to brain damage or Language-based Learning Disorder.
Dyslexia
A general term used to describe reading disorders/difficulties. There are specific types of dyslexics, however generally children have trouble with phonological awareness (see below) and sequencing to read, write and spell words. While very specific testing is done to determine the type of dyslexia, this may not be necessary for every child.. Speech-Language Pathologists who are trained in reading are able to evaluate children’s different areas of reading and develop a good treatment plan without an official diagnosis related to dyslexia. Dyslexia can be described as ‘an unexpected difficulty with written language’. ‘Unexpected’ implies that the child’s difficulties can not be attributed to obvious physical, emotional or intellectual problems. See Specific Learning Difficulties.
Dysphagia
A swallowing disorder due to any difficulty in any of the stages of swallowing. Children and adults with swallowing difficulties often receive a swallow study or test from a hospital, and may undergo swallowing therapy to learn strategies for making swallowing safer. Some people with dysphagia are NPO, which means they should not take any food by mouth.
Dysphagia Therapy
SLP’s assist clients in developing or re-establishing feeding and swallowing skills.
Dysphasia
Impairment of speech and verbal comprehension; term often used when associated with stroke or brain injury.
Dysphonia
An impairment of the voice such as having a hoarse voice.
Dyspraxia / Apraxia
Dyspraxia describes difficulty with controlling and co-ordinating learned patterns of movement, where there is no damage to muscles or nerves. Apraxia describes a loss of the ability to carry out voluntary regulated patterns of movement, although there is no damage or weakness of nerves or muscles. See Apraxia. Either of these terms may be used, although “dyspraxia” is heard more commonly in the United Kingdom. The two terms may be used with the prefix ‘developmental’ when describing the condition in children, as in:
Dyspraxia may be present in varying degrees from mild to severe in different children. Most clinicians agree on the following diagnostic features, and the child may exhibit one or more of these characteristics.
- Difficulty in control of the speech apparatus The child may have difficulty in making and co-ordinating the precise movements necessary for accurate speech production. The speech apparatus includes.
- the lips
- the tongue
- the soft palate (the fleshy continuation of the hard palate – roof of the mouth – which closes off the nasal passages for blowing, sucking, swallowing and speaking)
- the larynx (voice box)
- muscles used to control breath for speech
- muscles used for facial expression.
- Difficulty in speech sound production, with limited sounds used and inconsistent production.
- Difficulty in sequencing sounds to make a word.
- Difficulty in regulating breathing and in controlling the speed, rhythm and volume for speech. There may also be difficulty in balancing nasal resonance and in maintaining good voice quality.
Language development– Usually the child’s understanding of what is said is relatively normal. The majority of these children however will have been slow to speak, with late development of babbling, first words and word joining. They may continue to show some difficulties with the length and complexity of sentences. Problems with specific forms of grammar (such as auxiliary verbs, verb tenses or pronouns) may persist for a long time.
The speech and language therapist, who is the professional responsible for the assessment and treatment of this condition, will check and monitor all aspects of the child’s speech and language development. The child with dyspraxia requires skilled assessment and a planned programme of therapy. Progress will be slow and depends on appropriate help being given.
Dyspraxia of Speech
An inability to control and coordinate the movements needed to make speech sounds despite normal muscle functioning. The ability to say words or speech sounds is inconsistent.
Dysprosody
Impairment of the prosodic aspects of speech, such as stress, rhythm, and intonation.
Dystonia
Abnormal muscle tone.
Ear
The ear has three main parts:
Outer Ear– The auricle or pinna (the part of the ear on the outside of the head) and the ear canal.
Middle Ear– Located between the outer ear and the inner ear, separated from the ear canal by the eardrum. The middle ear contains three tiny bones (the ossicles). The ossicles sound vibrations from the eardrum to the fluid of the inner ear.
Inner Ear– The innermost part of the ear. It is composed of the hearing organ (the cochlea), the balance mechanism (the semicircular canal), and the auditory nerve. Vibration transmitted into the inner ear by the ossicles in the middle ear causes waves in the inner ear fluid, which stimulates the hair cells and the hearing nerve, causing electric signals to be transmitted to the brain, and interpreted as sound.
Other parts of the ear:
Auditory (or acoustic) nerve– Located in the inner ear, leading to the brain.
Cochlea– The snail-like organ of hearing located in the inner ear.
Eardrum– The tympanic membrane which separates the outer from the middle ear.
Ear Mold
A custom-made plastic or vinyl piece which fits into the outer ear to interface with a hearing aid.
Early (Childhood) Intervention (EI)
Early intervention applies to children prior to school age who are discovered to have or be at risk of developing a handicapping condition or other special need that may affect their development. Early intervention consists of the provision of services for such children and their families for the purpose of lessening the effects of the condition. Early intervention can be remedial or preventive in nature–remediating existing developmental problems or preventing their occurrence.
Early Intervention Services
The system of coordinated services designed to promote a child’s developmental growth and the ability to cope with disabilities.
Early-8, Middle-8 and Late-8
rly-8, Middle-8 and Late-8:
Echoics
Repeating the exact same thing as another person. For example:
| Therapist |
Client |
| “Cracker” ? |
“Cracker” |
| “Cat” ? |
“Cat” |
Echolalia
Tendency for an individual to repeat without modification that which is spoken to him; normally occurs between 18 and 24 months of age.
Delayed– Repetition of an original utterance at some later time.
Immediate– Instant repetition of the original utterance.
Mitigated– Repetition of the original utterance with slight modification.
Unmitigated– Unchanged repetition; exact duplication of the original utterance.
Educational Consultant / Diagnostician
An individual who may be familiar with school curriculum and requirements at various grade levels: may or may not have a background in learning disabilities; may conduct educational evaluations.
Educational Interpreter
A person who is able to perform conventional interpreting, together with special skills for working in the educational setting. See Oral Transliterator
Educational Model
Therapy focuses on intervention to improve the child’s ability to learn and function in the school environment.
Educational Therapist
A professional who uses educational and therapeutic approaches in working with clients of all ages with learning problems and learning disabilities. Educational Therapists perform professional work which requires applying the concepts, principles, and practices of education and rehabilitation therapy.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Technique for recording brain electrical activity.
Elementary School
A nonprofit institutional day or residential school, including an elementary community school, that provides elementary education, as determined by state law.
Elicit
To draw forth or bring out.
Eligibility Requirements
A standard a child must meet to qualify for early intervention services. Qualifiers include age, disabilities, and developmental delays.
Ellipsis
The omission of some words from a sentence.
Emotional Disturbance (ED)
Disability category under IDEA; includes depression, fears, schizophrenia; adversely affects educational performance.
- An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
- An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.
- Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
- A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
- A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.
- Emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance under 3301-51-01 of the Administrative Code, paragraph (B)(10)(d)(v).
Emotional Regulation
Voluntary and involuntary responses by a child to internal and external sensory input. The child adjusts emotions and behavior to the surroundings. Many children with ASD have difficulties with adjustments and exhibit abnormal or inappropriate responses.
Emotionally Disturbed
A disturbance which can be characterized by: an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships; inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. If frequently affects the ability to learn.
Engagement
Mutual and purposeful social interaction and conversation. Important in optimal recovery is the active initiation of conversation by the person with aphasia.
Epenthesis
The insertion of an additional phoneme in a word or in a group of sound, e.g. tree becomes taree.
Epilepsy and Speech / Language
The World Health Organisation defines an epileptic seizure as a transient loss of function of all or part of the brain due to excessive electrical activity. Physical, sensory or other functions can be temporarily lost. Certain types of epilepsy can be linked with learning, behavioural and speech and language difficulties. This is increasingly recognised and the risks are greater if epilepsy occurs before 2 years of age. Parkinson (1994) found that from a small study of children referred for assessment of their epilepsy, 40% had undiagnosed language impairment of varying degrees of severity.
Epilepsy can cause temporary loss of function in one or more parts of the brain. If these parts are involved with understanding, organisation and communication processes, difficulties in using language can result. These difficulties can be severe, causing general delay in language development or a disordered pattern of language abilities. The following epilepsy syndromes have associated language difficulties:
- Landau Kleffner Syndrome
- ESES or Tassinari’s syndrome: now called CSWS (Continuous Spike Waves of Slow Sleep)
- Lennox-Gastaut syndrome
- Temporal Lobe epilepsy
Sometimes the disability can be extremely subtle – such as a high level language impairment or disorder. Children may have pragmatic difficulties and, therefore, will not have a clear understanding of language use. They can appear socially inept and can misread others’ intentions. In these cases the child may exhibit bizarre or socially unacceptable behaviours or the child’s language may appear to be “odd” in an inconsistent way. They may have poor turn taking skills, excessive or restricted topic maintenance, and poor skills in greeting, questioning, seeking the attention of others, describing or commenting.
Some children may have episodes of slurred or dysfluent speech. These episodes can occur suddenly and be unconnected with stress or other obvious ‘trigger’ factors. They can be caused by changes in medication and/or as a result of epileptogenic activity i.e. electrical activity in the brain which does not necessarily manifest itself as an obvious epileptic attack.
Equipment
Machinery, utilities, and built-in equipment, and any necessary enclosures or structures to house the machinery, utilities, or equipment; and All other items necessary for the functioning of a particular facility for the provision of educational services, including items such as instructional equipment and necessary furniture; printed, published and audio-visual instructional materials; telecommunications, sensory, and other technological aids and devices; and books, periodicals, documents and other related materials.
Equivalent Score
An equivalent score indicates the individual’s performance on a test in comparison with other populations who have taken the same test. There are age-equivalent scores and grade-equivalent scores.
Errorless Teaching
A procedure used to minimize learner errors so the client remains successful. When presenting a demand, the therapist follows it with an immediate prompt to get a correct response from the client. The prompts are then faded to teach the client to demonstrate the correct response independently.
Etiology
Underlying factors and causing leading to a disorder.
Evaluation
An assessment of an individual’s abilities (i.e., speech and language, motoric, cognitive, etc.) in order to determine their strengths and weaknesses, and to see whether or not deficits are significant for intervention. It is usually the first thing that takes place to get a child qualified for service. The purpose is most often eligibility for a service(s).
Evaluation Team
The Individualized Education Program (IEP) team and other qualified professionals.
Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
The goal of EBP is the integration of: (a) clinical expertise/expert opinion, (b) external scientific evidence, and (c) client/patient/caregiver perspectives to provide high-quality services reflecting the interests, values, needs, and choices of the individuals we serve. Conceptually, the trilateral principles forming the bases for EBP can be represented through a simple figure:
Evoked Response Audiometry (ERA)
A hearing test which uses an EEG (electroencephalograph) and a computer analysis to directly record the brain’s response to sound. Useful in helping to determine a child’s hearing level when the child is too young to cooperate with the audiologist.
Executive Function
The ability to organize cognitive processes. This includes the ability to plan ahead, prioritize, stop and start activities, shift from one activity to another activity, and to monitor one’s own behavior.
Expansions
This is a strategy that can be used to help children learn language. Expansions are when you take the words your child says about what they see and do and repeat them while adding in missing words/grammar. Another way to look at it, is repeating back the “child-like” sentences back to your child using more “adult” language. By doing this, you are repeating and expanding your child’s language without directly “correcting” him/her.
Expressive Language Skills
This refers to a person’s use of words and sentences to communicate messages to others. Expressive language skills include being able to label objects in the environment, describe actions and events, put words together to form phrases and sentences, to use correct grammar, to answer questions, to retell a story etc.
Expressive Language
What is said or written to communicate an idea or question. Skills required to produce language for communication with other individuals. Speaking, writing, gestures, and sign language are expressive language skills. Communication of one’s ideas, desires, or intentions to others, usually through speech or printed words but may also include gestures, sign language, use of a communication board, and other forms of expression.
Expressive Language Difficulties
One simple classification of language is to split it into its receptive and expressive aspects. Receptive language refers to meaning, understanding language and “decoding” language. Expressive language refers to production, spoken output and coding – “a process of formulating ideas into words and sentences, in accordance with the set of grammatical and semantic rules of language” (Cantwell & Baker, 1987). Expressive language can be delayed or disordered. Many elements of delay and disorder overlap, but they are also very different problems. In the early stages, it may be difficult to determine whether the language is delayed or disordered.
A child with expressive language delay is slow to develop spoken language, but this language follows the normal sequence and pattern of acquisition when it does appear. Expressive language disorder implies that acquisition is not only slow, but different from normal. The pattern of development is uneven and atypical. The features of expressive language isorder vary greatly, depending on the severity of the disorder and the child’s age. Language is made up of many areas, including…
- Morphology, the way word structures change (such as, ‘sleep’, ‘sleeping’, ‘slept’).
- Grammar, rules about combining words in phrases and sentences.
- Semantics, the representation of meaning in language.
- Pragmatics, how language is used.
- Phonology, the sound system of the language.
Expressive language difficulties may affect any or all of these areas. Specialists in communication often consider difficulties in terms of their content, form and use.
Content– Difficulties with content of language relate to its meaning. Children with expressive language difficulties may have a limited vocabulary, wordfinding difficulties, and difficulty expressing abstract concepts or categorisation problems. Difficulties with language content may occur in the case of visually impaired children (Warren, 1981) or those with restricted mobility.
Form– Some children have difficulty developing the surface aspects of language – its form. This leads to disorders of the sound system, word forms and grammar. Such children may have difficulty with word order, structuring sentences or expressing what they know and understand. They will perform better on nonverbal tests than on language tests. They may have difficulties with word endings, plurals, possessives, verb tenses or prepositions. Such problems may arise because of acquired or developmental dysphasia or to impaired hearing.
Use– A child may have an expressive language disorder if he or she uses language inappropriately or out of context. The term “semantic-pragmatic disorder” may be used to describe these children, who may seem to have very good verbal comprehension and age appropriate sentence structure, but may have difficulty receiving or interpreting conversational cues. Such problems are also typical of children with learning difficulties. In that case, the children often lack verbal fluency, may overuse a limited or concrete vocabulary, and frequently fail to appreciate a need for clarification (Wiig & Semel, 1980).
Expressive Language Delay (ELD)
Expressive language delay is a broad diagnosis that simply means that a child is having trouble using language in some way, shape, or form. Since this diagnosis is so broad, each child with this diagnosis looks very different. Some have difficulty putting words together to form sentences. Some have difficulty using the correct vocabulary and words. Others have difficulty sequencing information together into a logical manner. There are all types of different expressive language symptoms and each one is treated quite differently.
Late Talkers – A child who is late to begin talking may be described as having an expressive language delay. For the young child who isn’t speaking yet, he has no expressive language (unless he is using sign language or another alternative means) so therapy is focused on increasing his ability to use language to communicate.
Sequencing – Many children with expressive language delays have trouble organizing their language so that what they say makes logical sense. They may have trouble sequencing past events when telling a story or putting steps to an activity in a logical order. This can make their conversation very difficult to follow.
Using Descriptors – Children with expressive language delay (ELD) can have difficulty using descriptors correctly. Descriptors like adjectives and adverbs can add color to our language and help us make our point more clearly, and in a more interesting manner. Children with ELD may either leave these words out all together or use them incorrectly.
Grammar Skills – Many children with expressive language delay also have trouble with using correct grammar. They may omit grammatical markers or use them incorrectly. These are the smaller words and word parts that string together the larger words to make meaningful sentences. Without these words, the child’s speech may sound telegraphic or choppy. Teaching proper grammar is also a great way to increase sentence length for a child who speaks in very short sentences.
Pragmatics / Social Skills – A child may be described as having an expressive language delay if they have trouble with social skills, also known as pragmatics. These children may have difficulty knowing what language to use to interact appropriately with other children.
Answering and Asking Questions – The ability to answer questions correctly requires quite a bit of language skills. First, the child has to understand what the question being asked means. Then, the child must process that question and formulate an answer. Finally, the child must speak that answer in a logical manner. Children with expressive language delay often have difficulty with this process. They may also have difficulty asking questions with correct word order and in a coherent manner.
Vocabulary – Children with expressive language delay may also struggle to learn new words and expand their vocabularies. These children may need extra help to learn words, remember words, and recall them when they need to use them.
Figurative Language – Children with language delays often have difficulty understanding and using figurative language such as idioms, similes, and metaphors.
Making Inferences – Children with language delays often have difficulty making inferences about what’s going on around them or when they are reading.
Expressive Language Disorder
Unable to form meaningful messages using age appropriate grammar or work finding difficulties.
Extend Ear
An FM auditory trainer without a body unit or cords. It can also function as a personal hearing aid. See FM System.
Extended School Year (ESY) Services
ESY Services are services that are often provided beyond the mandated 180 school days (from September to June). There is a process to go through to see if a student qualifies for ESY services. This item is included on the IEP form and requires a discussion and team-based decision.
Extensions / Expansions Plus
This is a strategy that can be used to help children learn language. These are similar to expansions, but one more step up. In extensions, or otherwise known as expansions plus, you not only are repeating and expanding your child’s language, but you will also be adding or extensions new information. For example, if your child says “Car go!” you could say “Yes the car is going. The car is going fast.
Extinction
A behavioral principle in which the reinforcing consequence for a target behavior is eliminated which results in a decrease in the frequency of the behavior. If the child is trying to escape a demand, the therapist or parent will follow through with the demand. If the child is trying to gain attention, the behavior would be ignored.
Eye Aversion
The speaker averts their eyes while speaking or while avoiding or escaping a block.
Eye Blinks
The amount of time a person blinks their eyes is increased while speaking, or when avoiding or escaping a block.
Eye Contact
“looking him/her in the eye” while talking to the listener; generally a natural, although not a constant, interaction of the speaker’s eyes with those of the listener.
Eye Gaze
Nonverbal form of communication. The act of looking at another individual’s face to see what they are looking at and then signal interest in interacting.
Eye Opening
Opening of the speaker’s eyes to a diameter that is wider than what is typical while speaking or avoiding a block.
Facilitated IEP Meeting
An IEP meeting that is facilitated by an impartial third party who helps the team resolve issues and make decisions about the child’s IEP with which all parties can agree.
Failure to Thrive
The absence of healthy growth and development.
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act is a Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records. The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education. FERPA gives parents certain rights with respect to their children’s education records. These rights transfer to the student when he or she reaches the age of 18 or attends a school beyond the high school level. Students to whom the rights have transferred are “eligible students.”
Family Training
Services provided to the family by qualified personnel to assist in understanding the needs of the child and helping the child’s development.
Feature, Function and Class (FFCs)
Teaching clients about FFCs teaches them to identify the object by its features (quality of an object), its function (purpose), or the class (category: food, clothes etc.). The goal of teaching FFCs is to help the child be able to participate in conversations. It allows them to talk about the object rather than just labeling it.
Feeding and Swallowing Disorder
Difficulties swallowing liquids or food.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
The growth, mental and physical problems that can be caused from a mother drinking alcohol while pregnant. It can be characterized by poor growth, decreased muscle tone, developmental delays and facial abnormalities.
Figurative Language
Figurative language is a fun way to make the language we speak and write more exciting. You can use similes and metaphors to compare or describe things in an unusual way or you can use an idiom to say one thing but mean something else. Figurative also includes proverbs. These types of figurative language are often used in literature that your child will read and can be used by children to make their writing more exciting.
Filler
Sounds like “er,” “um,” and “you know” that are used within productions that can be characteristic of dysfluent speech or stuttering.
Final Consonant Deletion
Final Consonant Deletion is a phonological process (phonological pattern) in which children omit the final consonants of words; for example ‘time’ pronounced as ‘tie’ or ‘make’ pronounced as ‘may’.
Fine Motor Skills
Use of small muscle groups for precise movements.
Fingerspelling
Representation of the alphabet by finger positions in order to spell out words or longer strings of language.
Floor Play
Therapy where skills such as speech, language and play are developed through floor-based play involving toys, games, activities, etc.
Fluency
Smoothness of rhythm and rate of speech.
Fluency Disorder
Deviations in continuity, smoothness, rhythm and/or effort with which sounds, words, sentences are spoken. See also Stuttering.
Fluency Therapy
For hundreds of years people have been mystified by stuttering, the most well known of fluency disorders. There are many different therapy programs for stuttering. Our program teaches techniques which make it difficult to stutter if the techniques are used properly.
Fluent Aphasia
A type of aphasia in which the initiation and production of speech are typical, but the speaker has problems with semantics and comprehension.
FM System (Frequency Modulated System)
A wireless frequency-modulated system that consists of an FM transmitter worn by the speaker and FM receiver worn by the listener. This type of system is like a small radio broadcast in which a signal is sent directly from the speaker to the listener, similar to a radio station transmitting a signal to an individual’s radio.
Follow Through
To continue with a demand placed on the client. Once a demand has been placed, it is imperative that the adult follows through to establish instructor control. Without consistent follow through, the child will learn that he/she can pick and choose which demands to follow.
Forced Alternatives
Providing the child with a choice of two items/ object to verbally choose from, one of which is the target item/ object.
Formative Assessment
An ongoing (minute-by-minute; day-by-day) assessment, observation and review used to maximize the positive effect of client practice and aphasia treatment. Speech-language pathologists and practice coaches can use formative assessment to keep individual aphasia treatment programs fresh and effective, based on changes in a client’s performance.
Fragile X Syndrome
Fragile X is a genetic condition. The gene that causes Fragile X is found at the tip of the X chromosome and shows as a fragile site – hence the name. Both men and women can be carriers of Fragile X and the gene may pass through several generations of carriers before a child affected by the syndrome is seen. Diagnosis is established by a DNA or Chromosome test but a Fragile X test must be specified.
Learning Difficulties – Fragile X is the most common inherited cause of learning disability. It affects boys and girls and it is found in all populations and ethnic groups. Learning disabilities vary from subtle educational delays to severe mental impairment. Boys who are affected almost always have some learning difficulty which can range from moderate to severe. Up to half of the girls have learning problems which are occasionally severe.
Behavioural Features – The behavioural features include inattentiveness, distractibility and poor impulse control often associated with hyperactivity. Shyness and social withdrawal are striking features in girls with Fragile X syndrome who may experience difficulty in making friendships and feel alienated from peers. Poor eye contact, difficulty in relating to other people, anxiety in social situations often leading to tantrums, insistence on familiar routines and hand flapping or hand biting may also occur.
Physical Features – Physical features may include a largish head and prominent ears but these may not be obvious in young children. Twenty percent of people with Fragile X have epilepsy.
Speech and Language Delay – Speech and language delay is almost always present but its severity varies considerably. There may be an entire absence of speech through to milder and more subtle communication difficulties. The characteristic speech pattern is fast and fluctuating. Generally the speech pattern has a jocular, running-on narrative style with frequent repetitions and swings of pitch described as “litany-like”. There is a tendency to stick to one theme in conversation (topic perseveration) and children may repeat words or phrases that are spoken to them (echolalia) or repeat many times words or phrases that they themselves say (verbal perseveration). There may also be a tendency to leave sentences incomplete.
Girls with Fragile X may also have a high-pitched voice with repetitions. Some children with Fragile X experience articulation difficulties which may be due to a large jaw and high arched palate. Hypotonia (low muscle tone) which occurs in some children with Fragile X may affect their muscles at the back of the mouth, the lips, nose and tongue which may in turn affect their ability to produce speech sounds.
Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 protects the rights of individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal financial assistance, including federal funds. Section 504 provides that: “No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States . . . shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance…”
Frenulum
A small frenum. See Frenum.
Frenum
Small cord of tissue extending from the floor of the mouth to the midline of the inferior surface of the tongue blade; important in speech because if too short it may restrict the elevation and extension of the tongue.
Frequency
The number of vibrations per second of a sound. Frequency, expressed in Hertz (Hz), determines the pitch of sound.
Fricative
A speech sound produced by a long interval of turbulence noise (ie: [s] and [f]). A fricative is a consonant made by forcing air though a narrow gap, generating a voiced or voiceless hissing sound. The fricatives in English are found at the beginnings of the following words: ‘sue’, ‘zoo’, ‘shoe’, ‘fee’, ‘vee’, ‘thigh’, ‘thy’ and ‘high’, and as the second consonant ‘zh’ in the word ‘measure’. The place-voice-manner (PVM) chart below shows the voiceless and voiced labiodental fricatives (/f/ and /v/), interdental fricatives (the ‘th’ sounds), alveolar fricatives ( /s/ and /z/) palatal fricatives ‘sh’, ‘zh’, ‘ch’ and dg’, and the voiceless glottal fricative (/h/).
Fronting
When sounds that should be made at the back of the mouth are made at the front eg. ‘tea’ instead of ‘key’ and saying ‘tar’ instead of ‘car.’
Functional
The cause of impairment is not known. See Idiopathic.
Functional Analysis of Behavior
Also Functional Behavioral Analysis. The analysis of a child’s inappropriate behavior and discovery of its cause. Includes documenting the antecedent (action prior to behavior), the behavior, and the consequence.
Functional Communication
The appropriateness of which language is used within a context.
Functional Impairment
Difficulties which interfere with a personʼs ability to function in major life activities, including social situations, in school or employment and in the community. Functional impairment can be shown in the areas of bathing and grooming, dressing, social skills and peer relations, as well as feeding and taking medicine.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
A MRI that looks at blood flow to specific parts of the brain while performing certain activities.
Functional Play
May also be a term used for “relational play” (seen between 9-24 months) denoting use of objects in play for the purposes for which they were intended, e.g., using simple objects correctly, combining related objects (man in car), and making objects do what they are made to do.
Functional Skills
Skills that will be immediately useful to the child and will be used relatively frequently in the child’s typical environment.
General Curriculum
The same curriculum that is used with children without disabilities.
General Education
Regular education; educational services provided to the general population of students.
Glide
A consonant sound that has a gradual (gliding) change in articulation. ‘Glide’ is a name sometimes used for an approximant articulation which resembles a vowel in quality. Glides are also sometimes called semivowels. The glides on the PVM Chart below are /w/ as in ‘woo’ and /j/ as in ‘you’.
Global delay
All areas of development are maturing at a slower rate compared to the majority of children at the same age.
Glue Ear
A fluctuating hearing loss caused by the intermittent build-up of fluid behind the ear drum. See also Otitis Media with Effusion.
Goal
The general statement on the IEP that states what teaching or what a service is expected to accomplish. The level of educational achievement accepted as a reasonable and desirable within a specific time period (a long term or annual goal).
Grade Equivalent (GE)
The grade equivalent refers to the grade at which the child seems to be performing (e.g., a child in the fifth grade who receives a grade equivalent of two is performing more like a second grader).
Grammar
The systems, rules or underlying principles that describe the aspects of a language; the combination (See Syntax) or the modifying of words (See Morphology) to form appropriate phrases or sentences e.g talking about the past or future.
Grammatical Morphemes
Grammatical morphemes are markers that change the meaning of a word. For example, the plural “-s” can be added to a word to indicate that there is more than one of it, such as “bug” to “bugs”. These markers can be word endings (like “-ing”), small words (like “is”), or they can change the word all together, like irregular past tense (like swim to swam).
Graphic Organizers
Text, diagram or other pictorial device that summarizes and illustrates interrelationships among concepts in a text. Graphic organizers are often known as maps, webs, graphs, charts, frames, or clusters.
Groping
Speech attempts produced with effort and hesitation to achieve the correct posture.
Gross Motor Skills
The ability to use large muscle groups that coordinate body movements involved in activities such as walking, running, jumping, throwing and maintaining balance.
Habilitation
The process (therapy) to make suitable for specific use.
Habituation
Act or process of becoming natural.
Hand Movement
Movement of the hands while speaking or while avoiding or escaping a block.
Hand to Face Movement
Movement of the hand to the face while speaking or when avoiding or escaping a block.
Handicap
The loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the life of the community on an equal level with others.
Hard of Hearing
Broad term covering individuals with hearing loss ranging from mild to profound (deaf).
Hard Palate
The bony part of the roof of the mouth.
Head Movement
Movement of the head while speaking or when avoiding or escaping a block.
Head Start
Head Start provides comprehensive child development services to economically disadvantaged children and families, with a special focus on helping preschoolers develop the early reading and math skills they need to be successful in school. Head Start programs promote school readiness by enhancing the social and cognitive development of children through the provision of educational, health, nutritional, social and other services to enrolled children and families. Head Start engages parents in their children’s learning and helps them progress toward their educational, literacy and employment goals.
Health Management Organization
A corporation financed by insurance premiums whose members, physicians and professional staff provide curative and preventive medicine within certain financial, geographic, and professional limits to enrolled volunteer members and their families.
Health Services
Public services to promote, improve, conserve, or restore a child’s mental and/or physical well-being.
Healthy Development
The expected physical, mental, and social development of a child in a specific timeframe.
Hearing Aid
An electronic device that conducts and amplifies sound to the ear. For more detailed information.
Hearing Impaired
Broad term covering individuals with hearing loss ranging from mild to profound (deaf).
Hearing impairment
Disability category under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act; permanent or fluctuating impairment in hearing that adversely affects educational performance.
Hearing Level
The lowest intensity of a sound necessary to stimulate the auditory system.
Hearing Loss
Hearing loss was originally defined in medical terms before the development of modern audiology. Today, professionals tend to use the consistent, research-based terminology of audiology. The following numerical values are based on the average of the hearing loss at three frequencies: 500 Hz, 1,000 Hz, and 2,000 Hz, in the better ear without amplification. The numerical values for the seven categories vary among professionals.
- Normal Hearing (-10 dB to 15 dB)
- Slight loss (16 dB to 25 dB)
- Mild loss (26 dB to 30 dB)
- Moderate (31 dB to 50 dB)
- Moderate/Severe (51 dB to 70 dB)
- Severe loss (71 dB to 90 dB)
- Profound loss (91 dB or more)
Hearing Screening
A brief testing procedure that separates those have normal hearing from those who must be tested in detail (because they are suspected to have hearing loss).
Help Me Grow
A system of early intervention services for infants and toddlers with disabilities that are provided in accordance with Part C of the IDEA, federal regulations, state law, and state rules, by the lead agency selected by the governor of the state.
Hemianopia
A disorder characterized by blindness or decreased vision in half of the visual field of one or both eyes. This often is associated with stroke.
Hemiparesis
Weakness of one-half of the body.
Hemiplegia
A paralysis of one side of the body as a result of stroke or other neurological injury.
Hemorrhage
The escape of blood from a ruptured blood vessel, externally or internally.
Hertz (Hz)
This is the generally used term for measuring pitch, expressing the vibrations or cycles per second. Most speech sounds fall within the so-called “speech range” of about 300 to 3000 Hz.
Heterogeneous Disorder
A disorder which presents itself differently from one person to another, including the presence and severity of symptoms and secondary behaviors.
High Functioning Autism
Characteristics that are typically seen in individuals with “high functional autism” may include some of the following: average or above average IQ, superior vocabulary skills, higher rate of unusual obsessions, motor deficits (clumsiness), less impaired on “theory of mind” tests, and speech is less commonly delayed.
High Stakes Testing
A test of high importance, which will help to make educational decisions in the future for the examinee. For example, licensure to practice a skill.
Higher Level Language Disorder (HLLD)
HLLD is a term which has found its way into the literature on communicative difficulties relatively recently. People described as having HLLD develop language which is structurally normal and have some understanding, but have problems with…
- Understanding more complex statements, questions and instructions – they often get hold of the wrong end of the stick.
- Expressing more advanced concepts, such as, “I ought to have …”.
- Word-finding.
- The more sophisticated aspects of language – for instance, knowing that “Go away home now,” is rude, but “You must try these biscuits,” is polite.
- Humour which depends on language.
- Inference – they have to have things spelled out to them.
- Literal interpretation – a child told to “Pull your socks up,” (meaning, “try harder”) might bend down and pull up his or her socks.
Often there is early language delay or disorder which seems largely to clear up, leaving the difficulties listed above. Many people with HLLD are of normal or above normal intelligence with good attainments in acquiring knowledge, solving problems and literacy. They often learn coping or masking strategies which hide their problems, and HLLD frequently does not show up on conventional language or psychological testing. Close observation and knowledge of the person is necessary for the diagnosis to be made, especially when checklists such as that above show such a degree of overlap with other contentious labels such as semantic-pragmatic disorder and Asperger’s Syndrome. People with HLLD often have difficulty with social skills and forming relationships with others. This, again, makes distinctions with other terms on the autistic “spectrum” hard to maintain confidently.
Home Visits
Professional visits to your home in order to plan and provide intervention services.
Homophony (Homonymy)
Homophony is the term used to describe a child’s production of different words the same way (e.g., ‘coat’, ‘coach’ and ‘Coke’ all pronounced as ‘tote’).
Hyperactivity
When a person is unusually active given the circumstances, it characterized by excessive restlessness and movement.
Hyperfocus
A very intense form of concentration that is hard to pull someone away from.
Hyperkinetic Dysarthria
A type of dysarthria that has symptoms of involuntary movement, abnormal muscle tone, problems with phonation and the rate and loudness of voice.
Hyperlexia
A syndrome observed in children who have the following characteristics: an ability to read words, far above what would be expected at their chronological age, frequently an intense and early fascination with letters or numbers, significant difficulty in understanding/processing verbal language, abnormal social skills, and deficits in social/pragmatic communication abilities. Precocious reading abilities are developed spontaneously before the age of five; they are not taught.
Hypernasal / Hypernasality
Speech sounds affected by too much air flow down the nose.
Hyperresponsiveness
Abnormal sensitivity to sensory input. Many children with ASD are extremely sensitive to commonplace sounds, sights, tastes, touch, and/or smells. Typically, this input triggers a defensive, negative response.
Hypertonic
Denoting excessive tone or tension, as of a muscle.
Hyponasal / Hyponasality
Speech sounds affected by too little air flow down the nose.
Hyporesponsiveness
Abnormal insensitivity to sensory input. Under-reaction to sound, sight, taste, touch and/or smell. A child may appear to be deaf or have a high tolerance for pain. May lead to aggressive behavior in searching for sensory stimulation.
Hypotonic
Denoting a decrease or absence of tone or tension, as of a muscle. Abnormally low muscle tone.
ICD Code
A universal billing system that utilizes a numeric format (codes) that differ as related to specific diagnosis. ICD stands for International Classification of Diseases. Impairment An abnormality of structure or function.
Identification
See Screening.
Idiopathic
Denoting a disease or disorder of unknown etiology. Idiopathic is an adjective used mainly in medicine meaning arising spontaneously or from an obscure or unknown cause. It is often used interchangeably with the term ‘functional’ which is sometimes used in medicine to describe symptoms that have no current visible organic basis.
Idiosyncratic
Used to describe a structural or behavioral characteristic peculiar to an individual.
Idiosyncratic Language
Language with private meaning that only makes sense to those in the situation where the language originated.
Imitation
In articulation therapy, the client’s response to the clinician’s model of the target production.
Impedance Audiometry
Testing to measure the ability of the middle ear to conduct sound to the inner ear. This information can be useful to the otologist in determining whether a middle ear problem exists which requires medical treatment.
Impulsivity
Acting without thought and concern of the consequences.
Inattention
The inability to direct attention to a specified object or task in, also being easily distractible.
Inclusion
Practice of educating children with special needs in regular education classrooms in neighborhood schools. See also mainstreaming and least restrictive environment.
Independent Analysis
See Core Speech Assessment Battery.
Independent Educational Evaluation (IEE)
Federal law defines an IEE broadly as “an evaluation conducted by a qualified examiner who is not employed by the public agency responsible for the education of the child in question.” 34 C.F.R. 300.503. Thus, an IEE is not limited to evaluating only a child’s academic or cognitive skills, but may include the evaluation of any skill related to the child’s educational needs. Evaluations of neurological functioning, adapted physical education, sensory needs, even music therapy, are but a few examples of the types of IEEs covered under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Parents may obtain an IEE, for virtually any purpose if it impacts the child’s education.
Individualized Education Program Team (IEPT)
The IEPT is a group of individuals involved in the planning and implementation of a student’s IEP including a principal, teaching consultant (TC), general education teacher, psychologist, social worker, speech-language pathologist, occupational therapist, and parent/guardian.
Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP)
This document describes what services and infant or toddler less than three years of age, and his or her family will receive. It is developed in collaboration with the family and professionals.
Individualized Family Service Program (IFSP)
A team-developed, written plan for infants and toddlers (aged 0 to 3 years) which addresses:
- Assessment of the child’s strengths and needs, and identification of services to meet such needs.
- Assessment of family resources and priorities, and the identification of supports and services necessary to enhance the capacity of the family to meet the developmental needs of the infant or toddler with a disability.
- A written individualized family service plan developed by three members of a multidisciplinary team including the parent or guardian.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
IDEA Mandates free and appropriate education for all children with disabilities over the age of 3 years and encourages early intervention services for children below 3 years of age.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997 (IDEA)
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is a law ensuring services to children with disabilities throughout the nation. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special education and related services to more than 6.5 million eligible infants, toddlers, children and youth with disabilities.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA)
The current special education law in the United States, which requires all states to provide a free appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment to children and students who have disabilities.
Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
A written plan for every student receiving special education services within the public school system. The plan contains information such as the student’s special learning needs and the specific special education services required by the student.
Individualized Education Plan (IEP) Team
This multidisciplinary team is made up of regular and special education teachers, other professionals, and the parents of the child. The team is responsible for identifying and evaluating children with disabilities who are in need of special education; developing, reviewing their progress on, or revising an IEP; determining the student’s placement; and determining that the child is no longer a child with a disability.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A team-developed, written document. The IEP outlines the goals for education and therapy for a student with disability, and provides a guideline for achieving them. An IEP for a deaf child should take into consideration such factors as: Communication needs and the child’s and family’s preferred mode of communication. Linguistic needs, severity of hearing loss and potential for maximizing auditory ability. Academic level, social and emotional needs, including opportunities for peer interactions and communication.
Infantile Autism
A spectrum of neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by deficits in social interaction and communication, and unusual and repetitive behavior. Typically occurs within the first three years of life. Some, but not all people with autism, are non-verbal. Please see Autism in this glossary for more information.
Inference
Any conclusion which one can reasonably be entitled to draw from a sentence or utterance (Hurford et al 1993). Inference uses implied or assumed information. Children begin to infer meaning from approximately 5-6 years but the skill continues to develop until at least 13 years (M Johnson).
Inferencing
Using reasoning abilities to draw conclusions given partial information. For example, if someone walks in the door with wet clothes and carrying an umbrella, you can infer that it is raining.
Inflection
A change in the pitch of the speaking voice to add meaning or emphasis to a word or phrase.
Informal Testing
The audiologist presents a variety of sounds ranging from low pitch to high pitch, and from soft to loud, out of the child’s sight. The child’s response to each sound is noted.
Information Carrying Words (ICW)
The number of key words that must be understood for the overall meaning of a spoken or signed utterance to be carried out e.g. “Show me the teddies nose” = 2ICW (also known as key words).
Infrared Systems
See Audio loops/Induction Loops.
Initial Consonant Deletion
Initial Consonant Deletion (ICD) is a phonological process (phonological pattern) that occurs when a child omits the first sound of many (but not necessarily all) words or syllables. For example, ‘Get me that nice orange Lego piece’ might sound like ‘Et me at ice or-ee eh-oh eese’. ICD is only found in typical development of Hebrew, Finnish and French. Any child learning English who deletes initial consonants should be referred to a SLP/SLT.
Insistence on Sameness
Rigid adherence to routines or activities. Disruptions may be described as “catastrophic.” Children with ASD may use sameness as a coping mechanism.
Insurance Coverage
A. Coverage by a contract binding a party to indemnify another against specified loss/conditions in return for premiums paid. B. The sum or rate for which such a contract insures something. C. The periodic premium paid for this coverage.
Intellectual Disability / Learning Disability
This is characterized by significant limitations in an individual’s intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. This covers many everyday social and practical skills. Intellectual functioning refers to a person’s learning ability, reasoning and problem solving skills. Adaptive behavior refers to conceptual skills (e.g. language, concepts of time and money etc); social skills (e.g. interpersonal skills, social responsibility, ability to follow rules, to avoid being victimized etc); and practical skills (e.g. personal care, safety, use of money, healthcare, schedules / routines etc).
Intelligence Quotient
The ratio of tested mental age to chronological age, usually expressed as a quotient multiplied by 100.
Intelligibility
The degree or level with which an individual’s speech is understood by others. In typical speech development, children’s comprehensibility steadily increases. By their fourth birthday typically developing children are 100% intelligible to strangers.
Intensity
Force or stress with which a sound is produced by a speaker, and the attribute of loudness of the sound to the listener. The loudness of a sound, measured in decibels (dB).
Intensive Table Teaching (ITT)
Programs that are taught in the client’s room sitting at a table.
Intent
What a person planned or wanted to communicate prior to speaking or writing. The underlying message a person is trying to convey.
Interaction
The social relationships and communication between two or more people. This may involve actions such as acting and reacting with each other or sharing experiences.
Interjection
Interjecting a filler word to either delay the moment of stuttering or to make the following word easier to produce. For example:
- “I went to the….um….store today.”
- “She….uh….plays the guitar.”
Intermediate School District (ISD)
Set up in 1962, there are 57 regional educational service agencies (i.e., ISDs) in the State of Michigan that help local school districts educate students (especially those with disabilities). ISDs coordinate programs and services that are often highly specialized and too costly for local districts to support.
International Phonetic Alphabet
IPA Consonant Chart– The International Phonetic Alphabet is a system used to write down the sounds, syllables, intonation and separation of words in spoken language. It is based on the Latin alphabet with additional symbols. The (pulmonic) consonant chart is below, followed by the most recent version of the Full Chart (IPA, 2005).
International Phonetic Association
The International Phonetic Association (IPA) is responsible for the development of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Interpersonal Communication
Expressing ideas, thoughts and feelings to another person. There are many ways a person can improve their communication skills, including increased knowledge of social situations, practice and personal reflection.
Interpreter or Transliterator for the Deaf
A person who facilitates communication between hearing and deaf or hard-of-hearing persons through interpretation or transliteration. Interpretation translates language from one modality to another, such as between Spoken English and American Sign Language. Transliteration (usually by a cued Speech or Oral Transliterator) conveys spoken information into more clear and readily speechreadable form or voices over difficult to understand speech into more clear speech.. The Educational Interpreter specializes in classroom interpreting.
Interrogative
Also known as “question words”, interrogatives are words that are used to ask questions (e.g., who, what, when, where, why, how).
Intervention
A structured way of putting into effect new skills, behaviors, and knowledge through an increase in using behaviors that are appropriate.
Intonation and Stress
The rhythm and ‘music’ of the way we speak. See Prosody.
Intonation
The aspect of speech made up of changes in pitch and stress in the voice. The voice may go higher or lower during speech to emphasize certain words or parts of words more than others.
Intraverbals
A response to something a person says which relates to an item, action or property that is not present. For example:
| Therapist |
Client |
| “Twinkle, twinkle little” ? |
“star” |
| “What is your name?” ? |
“Sam” |
Jargon
Vocalizations of young children that consist of several strings of consonants and vowels and may sound like speech, even though they are not true words. Real words may be mixed in with a child’s jargon. This is a developmental stage.
Jaw Grading
The ability to vary the extent of jaw depression in small amounts that are appropriate for biting foods of different thicknesses.
Jaw Stabilization
Active, internal jaw control with minimal up/down jaw movements especially significant in cup drinking; initially obtained by biting on the cup rim at about 13 to 15 months of age; gradually develops using active jaw musculature by 24 months of age.
Joint Attention
The shared focus and attention of two individuals to the same object or stimulus.
Kaufman Speech to Language Protocol
The Kaufman Speech to Language Protocol is a way of teaching children with apraxia of speech the easiest way of saying words until they have increased motor-speech coordination. Children are taught the shell of words without including too many of the complex consonants, vowels, or syllables which make a word too difficult to even attempt on a motor basis. This teaching method is a reflection of how young children attempt “first words.” For example, the word “bottle” may begin as “ba,” progress to “baba,” later becomes “bado,” and eventually, “bottle”.
Kinesthesia
Self-awareness of movement; including sense of one’s own body parts, direction, and weight.
Labeling
Naming, identifying.
Labial
Pertaining to the lips.
Labialization
Lip rounding; pursing or protrusion of the lips.
Labiodental
Relating to the lips and teeth.
Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (LKS)
A disorder with seizures starting in childhood in which the patient loses skills, such as speech, and develops behavior characteristic of autism. Landau Kleffner Syndrome is a rare form of childhood epilepsy which results in a severe language disorder. It is also known as ‘acquired epileptic aphasia’. LKS affects girls and boys almost equally.
The disorder usually starts between 4 and 7 years of age, though it may occur in children as young as 2 or as old as 11. Typically the first indication that something is wrong is that the child’s understanding of language deteriorates. In most speech and language disorders in children the child’s language will always have lagged behind; but in LKS there is a loss of language skills in a child who was previously developing normally and who was beyond the ‘first words’ stage. This deterioration of language can happen slowly, over a period of weeks or months, or much more quickly, over days.
The language disorder in most children affects understanding of spoken language; the ability to speak is usually seriously affected too. The child may not respond to environmental sounds, like a doorbell, phone or vacuum cleaner. Children with LKS are often thought to be deaf because of their difficulty in understanding what people say to them. However, hearing tests show that the child can detect sounds: the difficulty lies in interpretation of the sounds.
In some cases a diagnosis of selective mutism may be suspected. Unlike the child with selective mutism, the child with LKS will fail to speak in all situations, not just in some. Furthermore, children with selective mutism do understand what is said to them, whereas this is typically not the case in LKS. Sometimes it may be difficult to distinguish between LKS and autistic disorder. Children with autism often have severe difficulties understanding spoken language, and they too may lose language skills after a period of normal development. But in autism difficulties begin earlier (usually being apparent to parents by 30-36 Landau Kleffner Syndrome (LKS) months of age) and the child has difficulties with all aspects of social interaction and communication. Children with LKS, by contrast, will respond socially in a normal way, and will communicate in ways other than spoken language – for instance, through gestures and facial expressions.
This does not mean that the difficulties for a child with LKS are restricted to language. Some children are frustrated or frightened by their inability to communicate: this can cause temper tantrums, withdrawal from the world or other behavioural difficulties. If the epileptic activity affects the frontal regions of the brain, children may be uninhibited and lack restraint in their behaviour. LKS can be difficult to diagnose because many children do not have obvious epileptic seizures. Abnormal epileptic activity, in one or both temporal lobes of the brain, does show up on a test called an EEG (electroencephalogram). The temporal lobes are important for language comprehension and memory. There is no evidence that the brain is damaged in LKS; but the underlying epileptic activity interferes with the child’s ability to learn and understand language.
In some children the communication disorder fluctuates, so that speech and language may improve and then get worse again. Older children, especially those aged 6 and above when the disease starts, will often make a good recovery. For younger children (those less than 4 years at onset) the ability to understand speech may remain seriously impaired – although some younger children do make a good recovery after an initial period of deterioration. As for seizures, the outcome is usually good, and the EEG becomes normal.
As LKS is rare, many paediatricians will never have encountered a case; thus the reason for the child’s communication difficulties can go unrecognised. Any child who develops serious communication difficulties after a period of normal development should be seen by a specialist with expertise in epilepsy, who will investigate any underlying epilepsy and recommend the appropriate treatment.
Medical Treatment – Medical treatments are not usually very effective, but it can be of benefit to control the epileptic activity at an early stage. Drugs called corticosteroids can help – but these are powerful and most paediatricians will use them very cautiously. Other anti-epileptic medicines can control epileptic activity, but do not always improve language. Some children have benefited from a specific method of brain surgery – but this is not appropriate for all children with LKS.
Educational Implications – Most children benefit from alternative communication methods, especially sign language Those with persistent language impairment usually need special education with other language-impaired children in a school where sign language is used by teachers and other pupils. Children with LKS are sometimes educated with children who have hearing impairments. Parents of children with LKS are advised to learn sign language, so that they can communicate more easily with their child.
Language
While speech involves the physical motor ability to talk, language is a symbolic, rule governed system used to convey a message. In English, the symbols can be words, either spoken or written. We also have gestural symbols, like shrugging our shoulders to indicate “I don’t know” or waving to indicate “Bye Bye” or the raising of our eye brows to indicate that we are surprised by something.
Language Assessment
A Language Assessment is a comprehensive evaluation performed by a speech-language pathologist / speech and language therapist. It covers receptive language function (‘comprehension’), expressive language function (‘expression’) and the pragmatics of language use. It may involve standardised language tests such as the CELF or the CASL yielding Standard Scores and Percentile Ranks, and/or skilled informal and formal observations.
Language Based Learning Disability
Disabilities which interfere with age-appropriate reading, spelling, and/or writing. Please see “Learning Disabilities” for a broader definition of learning disability. A language based learning disability is specific to language processing and use.
Language Comprehension
Also called Receptive Language. A person’s ability to understand and process language at the sound, word, phrase, sentence, multi-sentence and conversational levels. Involves understanding of vocabulary, concepts, grammar (morphology and syntax), and higher level language associated with processing more abstract language (e.g., inferences, idioms, verbal problem solving and abstract reasoning). Also involves the ability to retain linguistic information for the purpose of understanding and interpretation. Difficulties with receptive language can interfere with academic or occupational achievement or with social communication.
Language Content
The meaning of what is said, signed or written.
Language Delay
Language development that is following a normal pattern, but typical of a younger child. Development occurs at a slower rate.
Language Difference
Language behaviors that are not in line with a person’s native language.
Language Disorder
Language development that follows an atypical/irregular pattern. A disruption of a person’s ability to learn a language without any cognitive deficits. Examples include when a person has a challenging time speaking correctly and understanding spoken language clearly.
Language Form
How what is said, signed or written is organized e.g. rules of grammar, rules of speech.
Language Impairment
A problem and/or immaturity in the comprehension and/or production of spoken or written language.
Language Processing
Process of hearing, discriminating, assigning significance to, and interpreting spoken words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and discourse.
Language Processing Problems
When an individual has difficulty interpreting and comprehending language or directions.
Language Sample
A collection of utterances (words, sentences) that can be in the form of a personal story, sequencing events, describing, explaining or others. SLPs often use language samples during assessments, they are an excellent way to get a good picture of a child’s functional language abilities.
Language Stimulation
Helping an individual understand and use language by exposing him or her to sound specific activities.
Language Therapy
Language is the basis for most learning. Without language there is no communication. While there are varying degrees of language disorders, the ultimate goal of all people is to comprehend all that is heard and express ideas in all that is spoken.
Language Use
How a speaker and/or signer uses language in a social context (See Pragmatic).
Laryngectomy
Where the larynx is removed resulting in a loss of voice. AAC may be required or specialist speech and language intervention.
Larynx
The larynx (‘voice box,’) is situated in the neck at the top of the trachea (‘wind pipe’). The larynx contains the vocal cords (vocal folds).
Learned Non-Attention
The condition of a person who either not sure where to focus his/her attention or had has developed set responses or maladaptive point of focus. This problem can of course impair, or even preclude, adequate aphasia recovery.
Learned Helplessness
The condition of a person who has learned to rely on others for help and will avoid taking steps to help him or herself, even though he/she may be capable of doing so. Often, after a stroke or brain injury, people may believe that they are not capable of doing things independently and therefore, rely on family or caregivers to do things for them. Replacing learned helplessness with focused cognitive attention and independently initiated action is crucial in maximizing aphasia recovery. See also Learned Non-Attention.
Learning Difficulties
The term ‘learning difficulties’ is currently used by many people to cover a wide and varied range of difficulties. The following features show how children with learning difficulties may appear in the classroom.
- They grasp new skills and knowledge slowly. It is often helpful for their educational activities to be broken down into smaller steps.
- Their ability to speak and understand language is less efficient than that of other children of the same age. They may have difficulty keeping track of a conversation, especially when topics change. Some children with learning difficulties may not develop language at all.
- They have limited ability to plan and organise their work. They may have difficulties in working out what to do, what to attend to and what to remember.
- The children may have difficulty working out which are the important points or bits of information in lessons and conversations. They have difficulty seeing relationships among ideas, events, objects and so on.
- The children may find it hard to concentrate. They may look or move around more than other children spending less time on the tasks and activities.
- They may be socially immature, acting younger than their age. Their play and interests may also be more typical of younger children.
Learning Disabilities (LD)
Disabilities affecting the manner one takes in information, retains it, and expresses the knowledge and understanding they have. Learning disabilities is a general term for a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. They are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability. Though learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions or with extrinsic influences, they are not the result of those conditions or influences (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 1981, revised 1988). See “Learning Disabilities–Continued” for other frequent characteristics.
Learning Disabilities (LD)–Continued
Frequent characteristics of learning disabilities include, but are not limited to, a marked discrepancy between achievement and potential with uneven abilities within an individual, average to above average intellectual functioning, processing deficits (e.g., auditory and/or visual perceptual problems), and long/short term auditory and/or visual memory deficits.
Learning Theory
A broad term used to describe the various models/philosophies about how human beings learn.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Least restrictive environment means that a student who has a disability should have the opportunity to be educated with non-disabled peers, to the greatest extent appropriate. They should have access to the general education curriculum, or any other program that non-disabled peers would be able to access. The student should be provided with supplementary aids and services necessary to achieve educational goals if placed in a setting with non-disabled peers.
Letter-Sound Correspondence
The relationship between a letter or letter combination and a single sound. For example, the letter “j” and the letter combination “dge” both make the sound heard in the beginning of the word “jump.” An understanding of letter-sound correspondence (also called grapheme-phoneme correspondence) is essential for decoding a new word.
Lexical Stress
The pattern of the stressed and unstressed syllables in words.
Lexicon
Total accumulation of linguistic signs, words or morphemes, or both, in a given language; the list of all the words in a language.
Linguadental
Pertaining to the tongue and teeth.
Lingual
Pertaining to the tongue.
Linguistic Concepts
More complex than basic concepts. These include temporal concepts (e.g. first/then, before/after), concepts of inclusion/exclusion (e.g. except, either/or), sequential concepts (e.g. first/second/third, first/last), concepts of location (e.g. closest to/furthest from, next to), conditional concepts (e.g. unless). This list is not exhaustive.
Lip Pursing
The speaker has observable tightness in the lips.
Lipreading
See Speechreading.
Liquid
Liquid is a term used to refer to /r/ and /l/. The lateral liquid is /l/ and the rhotic liquid is /r/, as shown on the PVM Chart below.
Lisp
A lisp refers to an articulation disorder where a child is having difficulty producing the /s/ and /z/ phonemes, and sometimes has difficulties with the sh, ch and J sounds as well. There are four main types of lisps, characterized by their specific substitution patterns: the interdental/frontal lisp, the dentalized lisp, and lateral lisp, and the palatal lisp.
Listening Comprehension
Understanding speech and the ability to comprehend the text read aloud.
Literacy
Literacy refers to any reading, writing or spelling skills and communicating through written language. Children with speech and language delays often have difficulty with literacy skills as well. Children who have difficulty pronouncing or understanding certain speech sounds may have difficulty with reading and writing those sounds as well. This can lead to trouble decoding and sounding out words. Children with language delays may not fully understand all parts of language, such as grammar, syntax, vocabulary, etc. This can lead to problems understanding text or putting one’s ideas into writing in a logical manner.
Literacy Enriched Curriculum
Focuses on and emphasizes the importance of speaking, reading, and writing in the learning of all students.
Loaner Hearing Equipment
Hearing equipment that may be loaned to clients who do not have access to personal equipment for a short period of time.
Local Education Agency or School District (LEA)
The primary purposes of the Local Education Agency (School District) Universe Survey are A. to provide a complete listing of every education agency in the United States responsible for providing free public elementary/secondary instruction or education support services; B. to provide basic information about all education agencies and the students for whose education the agencies are responsible.
Localization
Ability to identify the location of a sound source exclusively with auditory information.
Logorrhea
Excessive wordiness. The uncontrollable intention to continue a dialogue with lack of awareness of its impact on conversational partner. Similar to press of speech but tendency to stay on a topic rather than drift from topic to topic.
Long Word
A ‘long word’ has more than two syllables. Examples include: ambulance, hippopotamus, computer, spaghetti, vegetables, helicopter, animals, caravan, caterpillar, and butterfly. See Multisyllabic Words.
Long-Term Memory
See Specific Memory Desorders. The term long-term memory refers to a person’s ability to retain information over time, e.g. for minutes to hours or longer. There is much theoretical debate about which types of long-term memory processing are possible in humans. One commonly debated account of long-term memory is the difference between storing episodic and semantic information. Episodic memory is memory for events or episodes that include the contextual details of the learning experience, for example, the ability to remember what happened on the way to school this morning or to recall what happened on a particular birthday. Semantic memory is the ability to remember factual information that does not include the contextual details of the learning event. For example, a child may know that the capital of France is Paris, but not remember the actual event when they were first told such a fact.
There are reports of children who appear to have strengths in semantic memory compared to episodic memory (Vargha-Khadem, ’01). Children with weaknesses in their episodic memory can exhibit particular patterns of learning, behavioural and social difficulties. For example;
- They may get lost easily.
- They may repeat things previously done because they do not remember doing them the first time.
- When questioned about their daily experiences, such as what they did at school that day, they find it difficult to provide specific details or describe events.
- They may appear socially aloof as they find it difficult to remember shared events.
Children with semantic memory difficulties will have more pervasive problems in learning the factual contents of the academic curriculum.
Look What I Did (LWID)
A form used by the therapists to communicate information regarding the client’s daily activities to the client’s parents.
Loss of Eye Contact
The speaker reduces the amount of eye contact while speaking, including, but not limited to, while they are avoiding or escaping a block.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Computerized image technology that uses nuclear magnetic resonance to create cross sectional images, or “slices,” of targeted part of the body.
Mainstreaming
The concept that students with disabilities should be integrated with their non-disabled peers to the maximum extent possible, when appropriate to the needs of the student with a disability.
Makaton
A simplified sign and symbol system based on British Sign Language (BSL) and natural gesture.
Making Inferences
Children with language delays often have difficulty making inferences about what’s going on around them or when they are reading.
Maladaptive Behavior
Inappropriate behavior or misbehaving, a behavior that has a negative impact on the person who is exhibiting it.
Mandible
Lower jaw.
Mands
Requests, asking for items or information. Examples include:
- Mand for item “cookie” or “I want cookie”
- Mand for information “where is the ball?”
Manifestation Determination
A determination made by a school district, parent, and relevant members of the IEP team that a child’s conduct was caused by, or was the result of, the child’s disability.
Manifestation Determination Review
If child with disability engages in behavior or breaks a rule or code of conduct that applies to nondisabled children and the school proposes to remove the child, the school must hold a hearing to determine if the child’s behavior was caused by the disability.
Manipulatives
Objects used or handled by students (e.g., pegs, puzzle pieces, blocks).
Manner of Articulation
Consonants are classified in terms of their Place-Manner-Voice. The manner of articulation is the type of obstruction that occurs in the production of a particular consonant. The ‘manners’ of articulation are: Stop, Fricative, Affricate, Nasal, Liquid and Glide. The Stops, Fricatives and Affricates are termed obstruents, and the Nasals, Liquids, Glides, AND VOWELS are termed sonorants. The consonants /l/, /r/, /w/ and /j/ are also referred to as approximants.
Manual Stimulation
The use of touch and pressure to stimulate nerves in and around weak muscles.
Mastered Skills
A skill that has met mastery criteria and can be demonstrated across multiple stimuli, people, and environments.
Mastery
When a client demonstrates a skill independently and across multiple environments. The typical mastery criteria is that a client must answer correctly three consecutive days in a row over two different therapists.
Maximal Opposition
A maximal opposition cuts across many featural dimensions. For example the word pair bun-sun differs in place (labial is distinct from coronal), manner (stop is distinct from fricative) and voice (/b/ is voiced and /s/ is voiceless). The contrast fat-gnat is in place, manner, voice and major class (/f/ is an obstruent and /n/ is sonorant), and markedness (/f/ is marked, /n/ is not).
Maximum Assistance
The student performs 25% to 49% of tasks by self.
Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)
The average sentence length, usually taken from a language sample (see above). This is a little tricky because it is not just the number of words, but the number of morphemes (see below). Ex: A child that says “playing” is using a more complex form than one who says “play”. The “ing” has it’s own meaning (present tense- I am doing it now) and counts as an extra morpheme.
Mediation
A voluntary process or resolving disputes between two parties that is led by a mediator – a trained, impartial third party.
Medical Model
Therapy focuses on treatment to cure or alleviate specific underlying medical conditions.
Medical Services
Related service; includes services provided by a licensed physician to determine a child’s medically related disability that results in the child’s need for special education and related services.
Memory
A person’s mental capacity to be able to recall or reproduce what he/she has learned and retained. This includes facts, events, impressions, words, names, experiences, procedures, etc.
Mental Age (MA)
The level or age equivalent at which a child realistically functions or performs. (MA is routinely used in Intelligence Quotient (IQ) testing, where test results indicate the actual developmental age of a child’s cognition and behavior.) Some clinicians use the term Developmental Age in place of MA. For example, if a child is 4.6 years old and is assigned an MA of 3.6, then the report is indicating that he or she is one year behind.
Mental Processes
The cognitive operations involved when a person thinks and remembers. Some thought functions considered to be mental processes include attention, memory, problem solving, decision making, and producing and understanding language.
Mental Retardation
Impaired intellectual ability that is equivalent to or less than an IQ of approximately 70 with onset before age 18, and presenting with concurrent impairments in adaptive functioning. The condition is manifested typically by abnormal development, learning difficulties, and problems in social adjustment.
Metacognitive
The ability to reflect and think about the “thinking” process itself. Defined as “thinking about thinking” or “knowing about knowing”.
Metalinguistic
Ability to think about language and to comment on it, as well as to produce and comprehend it.
Metaphasia
A person’s knowledge of language and insight into the cognitive processes used to communicate using language.
Metapraxia
A person’s understanding of and insight into the planning and execution of movement patterns.
Metathesis
Error pattern in which two sounds in a word are reversed (basketball pronounced as baksetball).
MI-Access
This is Michigan’s alternative assessments to the MEAP that are specifically geared toward students with disabilities. One of four assessments is selected based on the student’s anticipated level of independence in adulthood.
Minimal Assistance
The student performs 75% or more of tasks by self.
Minimal Opposition
A minimal contrast or minimal opposition is defined by one feature difference. For example, sip-zip involves a minimal difference in voice; sip-ship involves a difference in place; and, sip-tip involves a difference in manner. A contrast like shape-jape is not quite ‘minimal’, differing in manner and voice.
Minimal Pair
Treatment technique in which a person is exposed to two sets of stimuli that differ in only one dimension, usually in order to teach the child differences in meaning that result from differences in speech productions. Words that are alike in sound, except for a single phonetic feature; e.g., pear-bear, fat-vat. See Near Minimal Pair.
Mixed Hearing Loss
A hearing loss with combined sensorineural and conductive elements.
Mixed Rate of Instruction
Changing the rate material is introduced and taught dependent on the students level of understanding. When students are understanding at a high rate, the material is presented quickly. However, when students are having a more challenging time grasping the concepts, the material is taught at a slower pace.
Modeling
Providing a demonstration of an expected behavior.
Modelling and Recasting
Modelling and recasting are conversational techniques used by SLPs/SLTs, parents and teachers to help children’s speech and language development.
Moderate Assistance
The student performs 50% to 74% of tasks by self.
Modifications
Actual changes made in a task, routine, etc., to help an individual complete tasks/achieve goals to the best level possible within the general curriculum.
Modified Independence
The student is able to complete the prescribed activity independently given extra time, modifications or accommodations.
Monaural Amplification
The use of one hearing aid instead of two.
Morpheme
Words or parts of words that have meaning. This includes regular words such as house, cat, tree, etc., and “bound morphemes” such as “s” (plural, possessive), “ing”, “est”, “er”, etc.
Morphology
The study of how sounds and words are put together to form meaning.
Motor Imitation
Physical movements that are copied from a model.
Motor Planning or “Praxis”
The ability to plan, initiate and execute a motor action.
Motor Speech Disorders
Motor speech disorders are a group of speech disorders characterized by difficulty with the motor aspect of speech. They can involve difficulty with the coordination and planning of movements needed for speech (Apraxia) or difficulties with the strength of the articulatory and respiratory system (Dysarthria).
Mouth Tension
There is increased tension in the mouth while speaking, especially for certain words or sounds.
Move On When Reading
Arizona is one of the states that passed third-grade retention legislation in May, 2010 called “Move on When Reading.” A.R.S. requires that a pupil not be promoted from the third grade if the pupil obtains a score on the reading portion of the Arizona Instrument to Measure Standards test, (AIMS) (or a successor test) demonstrating that the pupil’s reading falls far below the third grade level. While retention policies are receiving a lot of attention due to a push to improve 3rd-grade reading, early identification and intervention are more likely to improve student performance. What we have learned from states like New York and Florida is to not just repeat the same 3rd-grade curriculum; we have to do something different. Schools must develop early identification systems and target struggling readers for intervention. The interventions need to be grounded in a theoretical framework for how reading skills are acquired, based on neuroscience findings, and evidence from effective education programs. Interventions need to address the five components of the reading process, explicitly instruct students in the structure of language, provide opportunity to practice, and monitor students frequently. Mary Wennersten, ADE.
Movie Talk
See Echolalia.
Multidisciplinary Evaluation Team (MET)
The MET is a comprehensive evaluation process that is scheduled every 3 years for special education certification. (It is currently under review at the federal level and therefore subject to changes in Michigan).
Multidisciplinary Team
A group or team of disciplines that work, assess, report results, and/or deliver treatment to clients.
Multiple Sclerosis
A neurological disorder characterized by progressive and deteriorating muscular disability produced by an overgrowth of the myelin sheath surrounding the nerve tracts; paralysis, muscle tremors, and dysarthria may be associated to varying degrees depending of the site of lesion.
Multiple Disabilities
Disability category under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act; concomitant impairments (such as mental retardation, blindness, mental retardation. orthopedic impairment, etc.) that cause such severe educational problems that problems cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments.
Multiple Opposition
Multiple oppositions are constructed when one sound is contrasted with many, as in ‘dip’ vs. ‘lip’, ‘ship’, ‘grip’ and ‘chip’ (dip-lip, dip-ship, dip-grip, dip-ship) in a treatment set in the variation of Minimal Pairs therapy called Multiple Oppositions Therapy (Multiple Oppositions Intervention).
Multisensory
Approach that emphasizes the use of vision, hearing, and touch to provide additional information to help shape a child’s speech production.
Multisensory Structured Language Education
An educational approach that uses visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-tactile cues simultaneously to enhance memory and learning. Links are consistently made between the visual (what we see), auditory (what we hear), and kinesthetic-tactile (what we feel) pathways in learning to read and spell.
Multisyllabic Words
Some experts define multisyllabic words as words of more than one syllable, and others define them as words of more than two syllables. There is a tendency among researchers nowadays to avoid the terms ‘multisyllabic words’ and ‘polysyllabic words’ and to use the terms ‘one syllable words’, ‘two syllable words’ and ‘long words’ instead. See Long Word.
Munching
The earliest form of chewing.
Muscular Dystrophy
A progressive degenerative disease resulting in muscles that may be unable to either to contract of relax.
Mutual Recognition Agreement
See Associations.
Myofunctional
A. Pertaining to muscular function. B. In speech, denoting the action of muscle groups related to facial development and tongue function.
Myofunctional Therapy
Method of restoring to normal the action of the muscle groups related to tongue function and swallowing. Myofunctional Therapy involves training oral muscle groups to correct a deviant swallow pattern. Tongue thrust or deviant swallow often has a negative impact on dental alignment and speech production. Therefore, habituating a correct swallow can, in turn, strengthen muscles which are necessary for correct speech production.
Myringotomy
Surgical incision into the tympanic membrane to allow drainage of fluid from the middle ear.
Narrative
Ability to describe events in a sequential, chronologically correct, and logically consistent manner.
Nasal Emission
Airflow through the nose, usually audible and indicative of an incomplete seal between the nasal and oral cavities; typical of cleft palate speech.
Nasal/’The Nasals’
‘Nasal’ means relating to the nose, e.g., ‘nasal consonant’, ‘nasal resonance’, ‘hypernasal’, ‘hyponasal’. Nasal consonants, commonly called ‘the nasals’, are made with air escaping only through the nose. To produce nasals the soft palate must be lowered to let air escape past it and down the nose. At the same time the soft palate must close off the opening to the oral cavity to prevent air from escaping through it. Children with cleft palate cannot do either, so their palates must be surgically repaired. There are three nasal consonants in English /m/ as in ‘rum’, /n/ as in ‘run’ and ‘ng’ as in ‘rung’.
Nasality
General symptom classification that includes all voices that acoustically have an excessive nasal component.
Native Language
Language normally used by the child’s parents.
Natural Language
Language acquired primarily through the accessible sensory channel(s).
Natural Reinforcer
A stimulus that naturally occurs in an environment and maintains or increases a specific desired response or behavior. Natural reinforcers are often associated with social situations.
Natural Environment Teaching (NET)
Involves generalizing skills acquired in ITT, as well as teaching new skills and appropriate play by using the activities of interest to the client in the natural environment.
Near Minimal Pair
Near minimal pairs occur in syllable structure contrasts, e.g., back-black, an-ant, up-cup, tinkle-twinkle, bee-bees, and relate to the inclusion or exclusion of a consonant. See Minimal Pair.
Negation
Denial or refusal that may be noted in syntax or semantics; e.g., no, not.
Negative Self-Talk
Inner dialogue that includes a mix of negative thoughts, partial truths and distortions of reality that continue to bring about negative emotions including those of guilt, fear, anxiety and pessimism. These thoughts are often self-sabotaging and negatively affect a person. This dialogue can appear in times of increased stress or emotional turmoil.
Neural Control
Control of various muscle groups initiated by electrical signals generated between the nerve cells in the brain.
Neural Pathways
Bundles of neurons that connect one part of the nervous system with another.
Neurogenic
Controlled by or arising from the nervous system.
Neurologist
Physician specializing in evaluating and treating disorders of the nervous system.
Neuroplasticity
The ability of the brain to heal itself or grow. It is the ability of the human brain to make changes and adapt in reaction to environmental cues, experiences, behavior, injury and/or disease.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB)
The NCLB is the Federal law that requires school accountability for student achievement, including the hiring and placement of highly qualified teachers in all core curriculum subjects. Every school must meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) standards, which are monitored by the state and reported to parents on an annual basis.
Non-Developmental Patterns
Non-developmental patterns or non-developmental processes are speech simplifications produced by children that are not found in typical development. They include Initial consonant deletion (ICD is found in the typical development of Finnish, French and possibly Hebrew), Intrusive consonants, Backing (stops, fricatives, affricates), Denasalization, Devoicing of stops, Sound preference substitutions (Systematic sound preference), Deletion of unmarked cluster element, Glottal replacement and Final vowel addition. See Developmental Patterns.
Non-Discriminatory Evaluation and Identification for Special Education
An evaluation given to determine whether a student has a disability and, if so, whether they qualify for special education services. This evaluation tests a certain educational area instead of being a general test of intelligence. The purpose of the assessment is to make sure that the student is placed in the appropriate educational setting. In addition to standardized tests, the evaluation also reviews other information including observations of physical development, culture, language and adaptive behaviors in order to place each student appropriately.
Non-Fluent Aphasia
Aphasia that affects speech output, causing the speaker to speak in slow, labored speech and in shorter phrases. The person is still able to understand speech and read well, however writing is challenging.
Non-Functional Routines
Repeated actions or behaviors that appear to not have a purpose. Children with ASD may place purpose in what appears to be senseless routines.
Non-Literal Language
Language which requires prior world knowledge. It is based on words which usually have several meanings or which don’t make sense in combination with the other words used e.g. idioms.
Non-Public School Agency (NPA)
An approved, but unrelated, agency that provides a service to meet the needs/demands of a public school system.
Non-Verbal
Without words.
Non-Verbal Behaviors
Acts performed by people in order to convey or exchange information without the use of speech. May include eye gaze, facial expressions, body posture, and gestures.
Non-Verbal Communication
The parts of communication which are not verbally language based, but which rely on the individual’s understanding or use of gesture, body language, facial expression, eye contact etc.
Non-Verbal Learning Disability
A specific pattern of neuropsychological assets and deficits that eventuates in the following: a specific pattern of relative assets and deficits in academic (well-developed single-word reading and spelling relative to mechanical arithmetic) and social (e.g., more efficient use of verbal than nonverbal information in social situations) learning; specific, developmentally dependent patterns of psychosocial functioning.
Non-Verbal Learning Disorders
These are neurologically based syndromes describing specific assets and deficits. The assets include early speech and language development, strong rote memory skills, attention to detail, and early reading and spelling skills. The deficits include motoric problems with coordination, balance, and graphomotor skills; visual spatial organizational problems; social deficits in their ability to comprehend nonverbal communication/gestures and deficits in social judgment; and sensory difficulties in any of the sensory modes–visual, auditory, tactile, taste, and olfactory (i.e., smell). Executive functioning skills are usually weak (planning, organizing, sequencing, initiating, emotional regulation, and impulse control).
Non-Verbal Skills
This is how a person can communicate messages without the use of spoken language. Non-verbal skills include eye contact, turn taking, gesture, facial expression, body language etc.
Non-Vocal
Without voice.
Noonan’s Syndrome
“A grouping of specific abnormalities affecting both males and females, both sporadic in appearance but also reflecting a hereditary component (thought to be autosomal dominant). Symptoms may include webbed neck, sternum abnormalities (pectus excavatum, occasionally pectus carinatum), sagging eyelids (ptosis), wide-set eyes (hypertelorism), low-set abnormally shaped ears, undescended testicles, delayed puberty, mental retardation, short stature, and small penis.”
Norm-Referenced
A comparison that is usually based on others of the same gender and similar age.
Norm-Referenced Assessment
A type of assessment that compares an individual child’s score against the scores of other children who have previously taken the same assessment. With a norm-referenced assessment, the child’s raw score can be converted into a comparative score such as a percentile rank or a standard score.
Norm-Referenced Test
This refers to an assessment that has been used on a population of individuals that has similar characteristics as the individual being tested. Normed tests very often refer to a broad population of individuals who have been tested with the same instrument, according to age and/or grade. But there are other considerations as well; for instance, a test normed on a population of Spanish-speaking children may not accurately identify a language delay in an English-speaking child.
Notetaker
One who writes notes for the deaf or hard-of-hearing persons in various settings such as the classroom or in the office.
Numeracy
A person’s ability to use math effectively in his/her everyday life. It involves using mathematics to make sense of the world. See Acalculia.
Object Permanence
Awareness that an object is relatively permanent and is not destroyed if removed from sight.
Objective
A smaller, more manageable learning task that a child must master as a step toward achieving an annual goal. Objectives break the skills described in the annual goal into discrete components that, when mastered, allow the child to successfully obtain the goal.
Obstruents
Obstruents, shown on the PVM Chart below, are consonants made by obstructing the airstream.
Occlusion
Relationship between the various surfaces of the upper and lower teeth.
Occupational Therapist
Provides evaluation and treatment of daily living skills for individuals with disabilities. Therapy emphasizes remediation of or compensation for perceptual, sensory, visual-motor, fine-motor, and self-care deficits.
Occupational Therapy
Related service; includes therapy to remediate fine motor skills.
Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS)
The Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) understands the many challenges still facing individuals with disabilities and their families. Therefore, OSERS is committed to improving results and outcomes for people with disabilities of all ages. OSERS supports programs that serve millions of children, youth and adults with disabilities.
Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP)
Office of Special Education Programs is part of the U.S. Department of Education. OSEP provides leadership and support for professionals working with children with disabilities. Another critical role of OSEP is to protect the educational rights of children with disabilities from age three through twenty-one. OSEP is supervised by the Office of the Deputy Secretary of Education through the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS).
Ophthalmologist
A physician specializing in the treatment of diseases of the eye.
Oral
Refers to spoken language; or can refer to the mouth.
Oral Cavity
In speech, the mouth.
Oral Deaf Education
An approach based on the principal that most deaf and hard-of-hearing children can be taught to listen and speak with early intervention and consistent training to develop their hearing potential. The goal is for these children to grow up to become independent, participating citizens in mainstream society. Also known as Auditory / Oral Education.
Oral Interpreter
See Oral Transliterator.
Oral Language Difficulties
A person with oral language difficulties may exhibit poor vocabulary, listening comprehension, or grammatical abilities for his or her age.
Oral Motor
Referring to the oral motor structures for speech, e.g., lips, tongue, teeth, palate, larynx, and so forth.
Oral Motor Disorder
Difficulties with muscle function and/or motor planning that affect the individual’s ability to eat, drink or speak.
Oral Motor Therapy
Oral Motor Therapy is a highly specialized area of Speech Language Pathology. There are hundreds of difficulties that can be overcome by performing Oral Motor Therapy, some of them include a deviate swallow, tongue thrust, non-verbal communication, basic and complex feeding difficulties.
Oral Peripheral Examination
Inspection of the mouth to determine its structural and functional adequacy for speech and chewing/swallowing. Also known as an Oral Motor Examination.
Oral Placement Therapy
Oral Placement Therapy involves all different levels of treatment. The nonverbal child often needs strengthening, sensitization, or sometimes desensitization to be able to use the same muscles for speech production. By working during eating or in play activities, we can achieve these goals in a natural fashion. Individuals with articulation or phonological disorders often had training or retraining of muscle groups in order to achieve a correct sound placement.
Oral Transliterator
Communicates the words of a speaker or group of speakers to an individual who is deaf by inaudibly mouthing what is said so that it can be read on the lips.
Organic
The cause of impairment is known.
Orientation and Mobility Services
Related service; includes services to visually impaired students that enable students to move safely at home, school, and community.
Orthographic Knowledge
The understanding that the sounds in a language are represented by written or printed symbols.
Orthopedic Impairment
Disability category under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act; orthopedic impairment that adversely affects child’s educational performance.
Orton-Gillingham
A multisensory approach to remediating dyslexia created by Dr. Samuel Orton, a neuro-psychiatrist and pathologist, and Anna Gillingham, an educator and psychologist.
Ossicles
Three tiny bones (the Incus, Malleus and Stapes) in the middle ear.
Other Educational Agency
A joint vocational school district; department; division; bureau; office; institution; board; commission; committee; authority; or other state or local agency, other than a school district or an agency administered by the department of mental retardation and developmental disabilities, that provides or seeks to provide special education or related services to children with disabilities.
Other Health Impairment
Disability category under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act; refers to limited strength, vitality or alertness due to chronic or acute health problems that adversely affects educational performance.
Otitis Media
Inflammation of the middle ear, occurring commonly in children as a result of infection and often causing pain and temporary hearing loss.
Otitis Media with Effusion (OME)
Otitis media with effusion (OME) is commonly called ‘otitis media’, ‘glue ear’, ‘middle ear disease’ or ‘middle ear infection’.
Otolaryngologist
A medical doctor specializing in problems of the ear, nose, and throat. Sometimes referred to as an ENT doctor. Also known as an Otorhinolaryngologist.
Otologist
A physician who specializes in medical problems of the ear.
Overlearning
Practice or repetition of a skill past the point necessary for retention or recall; permits the response to become automatic or internalized, and permits a shift from the representational level (conscious or cognitive) to the subconscious or habitual level; e.g., syntax and language must be automatic if they are to be used effectively.
Pairing or Pairing with Reinforcement
The therapist associates him/herself and the teaching environment with the availability of high rates of positive reinforcement through access to desired items and/or activities. The goal is for the client to see the center as a fun place to be and the therapist as the person who delivers good things.
Palatal Fronting
Palatal Fronting is a phonological process in which the palatal fricatives are produced as /s/ or /z/, so that ‘ship’ and ‘shine’ sound like ‘sip’ and ‘sine’ and ‘measure’ and ‘explosion’ sound like ‘mezza’ and ‘exploe-zun’.
Palate
The palate is the ‘roof of the mouth’. It comprises the hard palate which runs from the alveolar ridge at the front of the mouth to the beginning of the soft palate (velum) at the back; and the soft palate, which extends from the rear of the hard palate nearly to the back of the throat, terminating in the uvula.
Paragrammatism
The substitution of grammatical morphemes by people with aphasia.
Parallel Play
The child plays near or beside another child using some or all of the same/similar materials as the other child without trying to modify or influence the other child and being mainly concerned with toy materials, not with relating to the other child. Predominates between 24-30 months.
Parallel Talk
This is a strategy that can be used to help children learn language. Parallel talk is similar to self talk, except rather than talking about what you are seeing, hearing or doing you are talking about your child is seeing, hearing or doing. So, when your child is playing with blocks you might say “Wow! You just built a tower! Oh you have the blue block. You threw the red block! Oh let’s see how many blocks there are, one, two, three blocks!” Notice in parallel talk, you are not asking questions of the child but rather are just modeling language.
Paralysis
Inability to move a muscle.
Paraphasia
The production of unintended syllables, words, or phrases by people with aphasia.
Paraprofessional Services
Services provided by school, county board of DD, and other educational agency employees who are adequately trained to assist in the provision of special education and related services to children with disabilities. Paraprofessionals work under the supervision of teachers, intervention specialists, and/or related service providers. Other titles used to identify these service providers include teacher assistants, educational aides, school psychology aides, occupational therapy assistants, physical therapy assistants and job coaches.
Parent
(a) A biological or adoptive parent of a child but not a foster parent of a child; (b) A guardian generally authorized to act as the child’s parent, or authorized to make educational decisions for the child (but not the state if the child is a ward of the state); (c) An individual acting in the place of a biological or adoptive parent (including a grandparent, stepparent, or other relative) with whom the child lives, or an individual who is legally responsible for the child’s welfare; or (d) A surrogate parent who has been appointed in accordance with rule 3301-51-05 of the Administrative Code. (e) Except as provided in3301-31-01 of the Administrative Code, paragraph (B)(42)(f), the biological or adoptive parent, when attempting to act as the parent under this rule and when more than one party is qualified under this rule to act as a parent, must be presumed to be the parent for purposes of this chapter of the Administrative Code unless the biological or adoptive parent does not have legal authority to make educational decisions for the child. (f) If a judicial decree or order identifies a specific person or persons under 3301-51-01 of the Administrative Code, paragraphs (B)(42)(a) to (B)(42)(c), to act as the parent of a child or to make educational decisions on behalf of a child, then such person or persons shall be determined to be the parent for purposes of this rule.
Parent Mentor
A parent of a child with a disability employed by a school district to assist education personnel and families by providing training, support, and information services.
Parent Training and Information Center
A center assisted under Sections 671 or 672 of the IDEA.
Parent-Infant Program
A program of parent education and infant/toddler intervention which stresses early exposure to language and attention to developmental processes that enhance the learning of language. Some programs include early exposure to amplification and the use of hearing aids to stimulate the auditory channel.
Parkinson’s Disease
A disorder of the brain, which is characterized by tremors and having difficulty with movement and coordination.
Participating Agency
Any agency or institution that collects, maintains, or uses personally identifiable information, or from which information is obtained, under Part B of the IDEA.
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC)
Arizona is one of the states that passed third-grade retention legislation in May, 2010 called “Move on When Reading.” A.R.S. requires that a pupil not be promoted from the third grade if the pupil obtains a score on the reading portion of the Arizona Instrument to Measure Standards test, (AIMS). The PARCC will replace AIMS in 2014.
Pathologist
One who engages in the scientific study of the nature of disease and its causes, processes, development, and consequences.
Pause
Excessive pauses in frequency or duration to postpone or avoid the moment of stuttering. For example:
- “I (pause…) did very well on my test.”
Pediatrician
A doctor who specializes in working with children.
Peer Rejection
When someone is excluded from a social relationship or interaction by peers.
Percentile Rank
A number that indicates the percentage of people who are below a certain level on a variable value such as a score on a test. Percentiles are described on a scale of 1 to 99 and are useful for illustrating one’s relative standing in a population. For example, if a child is in the 80th percentile, he or she has scored the same as or better than 80% of test takers.
Percentile Score
Percentage of individuals of a certain age range who scored below a predetermined raw score on an assessment.
Peripheral Hearing Loss
Conductive hearing loss and hearing losses associated with the inner ear.
Perseveration
Repetition of the same word behavior or thought, especially when it is interfering with functionality. May be seen with PDD or aphasia.
Perseverative Speech
Repetitive use of language or repetitive mention of a specific topic. Appearance of “being stuck” in the need to verbalize specific words, phrases, or topics.
Pervasive Developmental Disorders
This term was first adopted in 1980 by the American Psychiatric Association. Since then it has been retained and achieved quite widespread acceptance in the Americas. It was chosen to describe both autism and conditions which share similarities with autism. In the UK and continental Europe the term Autistic Spectrum Disorder was developed to serve the same purpose. The word developmental emphasises that the problem is present early in the child’s life. Pervasive implies that many aspects of the child’s development are affected.
In the UK and Europe, it is argued that although the disorders are pervasive they are not pervasive of every aspect of development. The term is criticised as uninformative in that it does not describe the nature of the abnormal features associated with the condition. By contrast, many Europeans argue that “autism” has proved to be a relatively viable diagnostic term. It should be retained, they would argue, because it has won wide recognition, describing a difficult condition which requires special help. Also, members of the public are beginning to understand the needs of people with autism. Thus, the term Autistic Spectrum Disorder has a certain useful currency.
In America it is believed that the term Pervasive Developmental Disorders has an advantage over autism because it is free from misconceptions about the condition. The argument is that various conditions included in the class of pervasive developmental disorders share some similarities, but the assumption that they all represent some variant of autism is not proven and may not be useful.
Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD), Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), Asperger’s Syndrome (AS)
PDD is a broad category of disorders, characterized by varying degrees of impairments in language, communication, and social interaction/development of social and communication skills. Often children present with repetitive and stereotypical interests and behaviors as well. PDDs are commonly referred to as Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). There are five subcategories within the PDD classification: Autism, Asperger’s Syndrome (AS), Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDDNOS), Rett’s Syndrome, and Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (CDD). ASDs are usually diagnosed by the age of three and are four to five times more common in boys than girls. For a comprehensive description of ASD, refer to the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV), published by the American Psychiatric Association.
Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (PPD-NOS)
This diagnosis is given to people who are on the autism spectrum but do not completely meet the criteria for another spectrum disorder, such as autism or Asperger syndrome.
Phonagnosia
An impairment in the recognition of familiar voices.
Phonation
The production of voice through vocal fold vibration.
Phoneme / Phonemic Level
Shortest unit of sound in a given language that can be recognized as being distinct from other sounds in the language. For many scholars the phoneme is the fundamental unit of phonology. Phonology, as an area of study, has shown that spoken language can be broken down into a string of sound units (phonemes), and that each language has a small, relatively fixed set of these phonemes. Most phonemes can be put into groups (stops, fricatives, etc.).
Phoneme Collapse
A phoneme collapse is a phonological rule. Phoneme collapses are seen as compensatory strategies that are organised according to aspects of adult system in terms of place and manner of articulation and voicing. Analysis in terms of phoneme collapses provides a holistic assessment of child’s speech that is child-based rather than adult-based (Williams, 2000a). The following example is of a phoneme collaps of one sound to many occasioning extensive homophony (different words pronounced the same way).
Phoneme Sequence Knowledge
The knowledge of the sound sequence regularities and rules of a language.
Phonemic Awareness
The ability in which listeners are able to hear, identify and manipulate phonemes, the smallest units of sound that can differentiate meaning.
Phonemic Development / Phonological Development
Phonemic or phonological development is the gradual acquisition, by children, of an adult-like speech sound system. The phonological or phonemic level is in charge of the brainwork that goes into organising the speech sounds into patterns of sound contrasts so that we can make sense when we talk. A five year old child with a phonemic (phonological) difficulty might find it impossible to make the sentences ‘He cut himself on the glass’ and ‘He cut himself on the grass’ sound different from each other (i.e., contrast with each other), perhaps pronouncing them both as, ‘He tut himseff on da bwaht’.
Phonetic Development / Articulation Development
Phonetic development is the development of the ability to articulate individual speech sounds or ‘phones’. The phonetic level takes care of the motor (articulatory) act of producing the vowels and consonants so that we have a repertoire all the sounds we need in order to speak our language(s).
Phonetic Transcription
Phonetic transcription is the process of writing down a person’s speech using phonetic symbols. Speech-language pathologists in Australia and most of the world use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to do this. There are symbols for vowels, diphthongs, triphthongs, consonants, pauses and intonation to use in broad transcription, as well as numerous symbols called ‘diacritics’ to use in narrow (very detailed) transcription.
Phoneticize
Representing the sounds of speech with a set of distinct symbols, each designating a single sound; phonetic spelling.
Phonetics
Phonetics, a branch of Linguistics, is the scientific study of speech. Sometimes a phonetic transcription is said to be written (or transcribed) ‘in phonetics’.
Phonics
Relationships between written letters and their spoken sounds.
Phonology
Phonology is the study of how speech sounds (i.e. phonemes) are organized and used in a language. This includes the study of the individual sounds of a language (phonemes), their patterns, how they are learned (phonological development) and how they work and go together.
Phonological Analysis
Phonological analysis is one component of Independent Analysis (see the Glossary entry for Core Speech Assessment Battery. In a basic phonological analysis the SLP/SLP phonetically transcribes single words and conversational speech and then evaluates what the child has in his or her phonological system, what is missing, and what intervention is needed.
Phonological Aphasia
Refers to an aphasia in which the client may “know” or be able to mentally recall the word, but has difficulty thinking of the sounds needed to say the word. Moreover, many clients experience difficulty with syllabification, the ability to know how many syllables that the word has.
Phonological Awareness
The awareness of sounds in words both when listening and reading. Phonological awareness has been shown to be a very strong indicator in the success of a child learning to read. Reading programs for children with dyslexia or reading difficulties address this as one component of instructions. There are several components of phonological awareness which can be taught in the classroom, at home, and in speech/language therapy. Some of these components include rhyming, counting sounds/syllables in words, and initial sound awareness.
Phonological Delay
A phonological delay refers to when a child continues to use phonological processes (sound simplifications, see Phonological Processes) in his speech beyond the age at which it is no longer developmentally appropriate.
Phonological Disorder
A phonological disorder is a speech sound disorder that affects the phonological (phonemic) level. The child has difficulty organising speech sounds into a system contrasts. These contrasts are called ‘phonemic contrasts’. For a listener, the most obvious characteristics of phonological disorder are the child’s poor intelligibility, and the presence of homophony (homonymy). Homophony is the term used to describe a child’s production of different words the same way (e.g., ‘coat’, ‘coach’ and ‘Coke’ all pronounced as ‘tote’). Phonological disorder is sometimes referred to as a Speech Sound Disorder that occurs at the linguistic, cognitive or language level.
Phonological Difficulties
Difficulty selecting and using the correct sounds necessary for speech. These can be characterized depending on where or how the sound is made. See backing, fronting, stopping, consonant harmony and cluster reduction for more information.
Phonological Memory
Temporary storage of phonological information in short-term memory.
Phonological Problems
A child with a phonological problem has a difficulty pronouncing a number of sounds. The sounds which are mispronounced can be grouped according to certain features, such as the place in the mouth where the sound is produced or how it is produced. There are many phonological processes (sound rules) which a child uses which affect the pronunciation of groups of similar sounds. Examples include…
- Fronting, when sounds which should be produced at the back of the mouth are produced further forward in the mouth (“car” becomes “tar” or “par”, “gun” becomes “dun” or “pun”, “sing” becomes “sin” or “sim”).
- Backing – the opposite of fronting – when sounds are produced further back in the mouth (“pen” becomes “ten” or “ken”, “table” becomes “cable”, “bear” becomes “dere” or “gere”, “dog” becomes “gog”).
- Stopping of fricatives, when longer fricative sounds (f, v, s, z, sh ,th) are pronounced as short plosive sounds (p, b, t, d, k) (“sun” becomes “tun”, “finger” becomes “pinger”).
- Cluster Reduction, when the child omits one of the two or three consonants which occur together (“black” becomes “back”, “sweet” becomes “weet”, “bread” becomes “bed”) – l, r and s are the most commonly-omitted letters.
A child may make use of more than one phonological process, even within one word. The processes may be affected by the position of the sounds in the words. For example, fronting sounds only at the beginning of words, so that “cup” becomes “tup” but “back” is pronounced correctly.
The child may use the processes consistently or inconsistently – every k and s sound at the beginning of words, or only some of them. Because of the number of sounds affected, the child’s speech is often unintelligible to strangers and to the family, causing both parties to become frustrated.
A phonological problem may also be referred to as a phonological disorder. A child is seen to have a phonological delay when using phonological processes which are more typical of a younger child. A child’s phonology is disordered when the processes used are inconsistent and not following the normal pattern of phonological development. Phonological problems may be caused by many factors including…
- General immaturity or learning disability.
- Recurrent middle ear infections which affect the child’s ability to hear differences among similar sounds.
- Low motivation on the part of the child, because the family understands the child anyway, or does not expect the child to speak more clearly.
- Poor control of the lip, tongue and palate muscles used for speech.
Phonological problems can also be associated with reading difficulties. A phonological problem cannot be caused by a tongue-tie. A tongue-tie affects the pronunciation of one sound only – r.
Phonological Processes / Patterns
They are the typical patterns of how a child simplifies his speech (so “normal” speech sound errors) as he learn to speak. A child is not born being able to produce all the sounds and sound patterns of his/her language. As a child is learning how to speak English, he will simplify sounds and sound patterns. For example, a young child will simplify the word “bottle” to something like “baba.” A young child may also say “goggie” for “doggie,” “sue” for “shoe,” or “nail” for “snail.” Phonological processes, then, are the normal patterns of simplification all children use as they are learning to speak.
Physical Therapist
Provides assessment and treatment for disorders related to physical and musculoskeletal injuries. Therapy emphasizes remediation of or compensation for mobility, gait, muscle strength, and postural deficits.
Physical Therapy
Related service; includes therapy to remediate gross motor skills.
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
Picture Exchange Communication System created by Bondy and Frost (1994). Requires the child to exchange a picture of a desired item with another person in order to retrieve the item and thus teach the initiation of communication.
Picture Matching Skills
An important part of early language development. The child, without any other clues (i.e. by the shape of the pieces / help from an adult) must be able to visually match the pictures which are the same.
Pierre Robin Sequence
A cluster of diseases that make breathing and feeding challenging, including a cleft palate, small jaw and a tongue that goes back toward the throat.
Pitch
Subjective quality primarily associated with frequency; e.g., high or low.
Place of Articulation
Consonants are made by obstructing or constricting airflow at some point in the vocal tract. The point of obstruction or constriction is called the place of articulation. The ‘places’ of articulation are Bilabial, Labiodental, Interdental, Alveolar, Palatal, Velar and Glottal. Note that there are other classification systems that differ slightly.
Place-Voice-Manner (PVM)
Consonants are classified in terms of their place of Articulation, Manner of Articulation and Voicing.
Place-Voice-Manner Chart / PVM Chart
The chart below is a PVM Chart showing the consonants of English. The voiced glide /w/ is included twice because it has two places of articulation, bilabial and velar. The glottal stop is also there because it occurs in some dialects (varieties) of English.
Planned Ignoring
Providing no attention to negative and maladaptive behavior in order to deliberately and cognitively reduce its frequency.
Plateau
A term, unfortunately used by some rehabilitation specialists and medical staff, that indicates that a person with aphasia is no longer expected to make progress. The client may be told to expect a plateau after a certain period of time.
Play Audiometry
A hearing test in which the audiologist teaches the child to respond with some action – a game response – whenever he hears a sound. He may learn, for instance, to put a peg in a hole, a ring on a peg, or a piece in a puzzle every time he hears a sound. The audiologist uses the audiometer, a piece of equipment that presents different tones (from low to high pitch, usually within the speech range) at varying levels of loudness to assess a child’s hearing sensitivity.
Plosive
A consonant produced by the complete blockage of airflow, followed by the buildup of air pressure, which is then suddenly released ([b], [p], for example). See Stops.
Polysyllabic Words
Some experts define ‘polysyllabic words’ as words of more than one syllable, and others define them as words of more than two syllables. There is a tendency nowadays, however, to avoid the ambiguous terms ‘polysyllabic words’ and ‘multisyllabic words’, preferring ‘one syllable words’, ‘two syllable words’ and ‘long words’ instead. See Long Word and Multisyllabic Words.
Portfolio Assessment
A collection of a student’s work which demonstrates achievement, efforts, and progress over a period of time.
Positive Behavioral Support (PBS)
PBS is a process and philosophy that helps students with behavioral problems succeed in school using functional analysis and positive reinforcements to affect behavioral change.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan
Observation of the brain through the use of positive emission tomography.
Post-Lingual
After the development of speech.
Post-Lingual Deafness
Hearing loss acquired after first learning a language.
Post-Lingual Hearing Loss
A hearing loss that happens after a person’s development of speech and language.
Practice
To maximize your aphasia recovery, you must engage in many hours of practice using smart exercises with effective materials and innovative technology.
Practice Coach
A person who assists a person with aphasia with engaging in the hours of daily practice necessary for maximal recovery.
Pragmatic Difficulties
Difficulties in understanding the social rules of language. For example: how to adapt language for different purposes (e.g. demanding / requesting / commenting etc); how to adapt language for different conversational partners (e.g. speaking to one’s boss versus speaking to a best friend); how to follow conversational rules (e.g. taking turns, maintaining topic, rephrasing if misunderstood, use of non-verbal skills etc).
Pragmatic / Social Language
Social/ pragmatic language refers to the way an individual uses language to communicate and involves three major communication skills: using language to communicate in different ways (like greeting others, requesting, protesting, asking questions to gain information, etc), changing language according to the people or place it is being used (i.e. we speak differently to a child than we do to an adult; we speak differently inside vs. outside), and following the rules for conversation (taking turns in conversation, staying on topic, using and understanding verbal and nonverbal cues, etc). SLPs can work with your child.
Pragmatics
The use, function or purpose of communication; the study of the rules that govern the use of language in social situations.
Pre-Lingual
Before the development of speech.
Pre-Lingual Deafness
Refers to hearing loss which occurs before the child develops language.
Pre-Linguistic Skills
Skills needed before language can develop e.g. eye contact, turn taking, pretend play.
Pre-Referral Intervention
Using evidence-based academic or behavioral strategies before referring a student to special education.
Pre-Verbal Skills / Pre-Language Skills
This refers to the skills which begin to develop from a very early age and which precede language development. These include listening skills, turn taking, eye contact, anticipation of activities, copying/imitation skills, joint attention, etc. This list is not exhaustive.
Precipitating Factors
Factors that result in the start of a language or communication problem.
Precorrection
Using reminders of expectations and appropriate behavior prior to situations where negative behavior is thought to occur.
Predisposing Factors
Factors that make a person more inclined to develop an impairment related to communication or language.
Preschool Child with a Disability
A child who: (a) Is at least three years of age and not six years of age; and (b) Meets the definition of a “child with a disability” in paragraph (B)(10) of 3301-51-01 of the Administrative Code or, at the discretion of the school district, is a child who:
- (i) Is experiencing developmental delays, as defined in rule 3301-51-11 of the Administrative Code and as measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures, in one or more of the following areas: physical development, cognitive development, communication development, social or emotional development, or adaptive development; and
- (ii) Who, by reason thereof, needs special education and related services.
Present Level of Academic Achievement and Functional Performance (PLAAFP)
This is a description of the student’s present level of functioning and how the individual’s disability impacts his/her progress in the general education curriculum (achievement) and setting (behavior/function).
Present Levels of Performance
Statements developed from relevant information about a child that provides a “picture” of the child including strengths and needs. This information includes progress on the current IEP, the evaluation team report, input from parents and child, interventions, assessments, observations and special factors.
Primary Progressive Aphasia
A dementia that results in a progressive loss of language abilities, while memory is relatively preserved.
Print Awareness
Basic knowledge about print and how it is typically organized on a page. For example, print conveys meaning, print is read left to right, and words are separated by spaces.
Probe Data
Data taken once at the beginning of every day for each program target to document if client’s response was correct or incorrect.
Procedural Memory
Knowledge of how to perform skills and actions (i.e., procedures) such as driving a car, using a cell phone or keyboarding.
Procedural Safeguards
Available to parents of students with disabilities, this document outlines a student’s (and his/her parents’) rights with respect to the state regulations that govern special education. This document should be provided to parents at every annual IEP meeting.
Prognosis
An estimate of the course and outcome of a disease/disorder, which represents a performance profile at the time of diagnosis but is rooted over time. For example, a speech-language pathologist may state in an initial evaluation that “the prognosis for attaining these objectives is fair.”
Programs
Clients work on various programs within the ABLLS or supplemental programs developed by the therapist. Within each program, the client must learn a number of targets to meet criteria for mastery.
Progress Monitoring (PM)
Monitoring how a student is doing by keeping track of behavior, recording data and transferring the data to a graph for a visual representation.
Prolongation
In stuttering, the lengthening of a speech sound or maintaining the posture of the lips, tongue, or other parts of the speech mechanism in an attempt to modify the stuttering pattern. A prolongation is when a sound within a word is extended longer than the amount of time typically used for production. Examples include:
- Prolongation: “Mmmmountain”
- Prolongation with Pitch and Loudness Rise: “Mmmmountain” (with a rise in pitch, loudness or both pitch and loudness)
Prompt
A prompt is something given to the client to increase the likelihood of a correct response. There are several types of prompts including: full or partial physical (physically helping the client to complete the task), model (the client observes the therapist demonstrating the behavior), gesture (indicate the item requested by pointing), and verbal (the therapist provides a vocal prompt).
Prompting
Using cues to build desired behavior. Verbal prompting often involves saying a single sound or word to help a child remember what to say or do. Physical prompting that involves physical assistance or touch can be helpful to initiate motor or self-help skill. Prompts should be reduced gradually (faded) until they can be eliminated.
Propositional Speech
The speech and language that we use for everyday conversation. It happens when a person creatively formulates words into sentences with regard to the situation at hand.
Proprioception
The subconscious awareness of weight, posture, movement, position in space in relationship to the body; based on sensory input from the joints and muscles.
Proprioceptive Feedback
The feedback that the brain receives from the muscles and nerves about the physical feelings of where the body (or a part of it) is and how it is moving.
Proprioceptive System
Proprioception is the ability to control where one’s body parts are and what they are doing. Proprioception provides information on where the limbs are in space without looking. The receptors for this sense are located in the joints. It helps control the amount of force needed for different tasks, ex. petting a dog without hitting the dog. Part of this process involves oral motor skills which requires proprioceptive awareness, as we do not visually monitor mouth movement but need input from the muscles and joints in the mouth. A child with poor proprioception may have stiff and uncoordinated movements, not be able to do things without looking and have difficulty dressing and undressing.
Prosocial Behavior
An act indicating a sense of empathy, caring and social conduct.
Prosody / Prosodic Features
Melody of speech determined primarily by modifications of pitch, quality, strength, and duration; perceived primarily as stress and intonational patterns. Prosody is an essential aspect of speech. Prosody or prosodic features are added to the sequences of speech sounds. These features include pitch, intonation (the rise and fall of the pitch of the voice), stress (emphasis), rhythm, voice quality, loudness and rate.
Psychiatrist
A physician who specializes in psychiatry. (MD) Psychiatry. The branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental and emotional disorders.
Psychoeducational Testing
An assessment process that helps to identify cognitive strengths and challenges of students. It also gives information that helps to confirm or disconfirm mental health diagnoses, including developmental delays and attention disorders.
Psychological Services
Related service; includes administering psychological and educational tests, interpreting test results, interpreting child behavior related to learning.
Psychologist
A person trained and educated to perform psychological research, testing, and therapy. Holds a Master’s degree or ph.D in the field of psychology. Since not an MD, they may not prescribe medications.
Pull-out Therapy
Removing a child from a classroom so that he or she can participate in a therapy session.
Push-in Therapy
Communication intervention by a speech-language pathologist within a classroom.
Pushing
The speaker is using visual force to help push out the words while experiencing a block.
Range of Motion
The distance you can move your tongue and/or lips in and out, back and forth, up and down, or side to side.
Rapid Automatic Naming
A skill requiring fast and effective retrieval from information about phonology from long-term memory and being able to use the information effectively. Examples include quickly naming a list of objects, letters, or numbers.
Rate
The speech with which phonemes, syllables and words are uttered.
Raw Score
A raw score in and of itself is relatively unimportant. This usually represents the total number of correct responses. Raw scores can be converted to percentile ranks, standard scores, grade equivalents, and age equivalents.
Readability
Readability refers to the level of difficulty in a written passage. This depends on factors such as length of words, length of sentences, grammatical complexity and word frequency.
Reading Comprehension
An understanding of the information read within a text or what they hear when they are read aloud to. A great way to check reading comprehension is to ask questions during or after a book-reading activity.
Reading Disability
Another term for dyslexia sometimes referred to as reading disorder or reading difference.
Reading Fluency
A measure of the accuracy, speed (or rate) and how smoothly the child is able to read. Decreased reading fluency typically reduces overall comprehension due to the additional effort and time required to read the text. If the child stops between each word and has to spend time sounding each one out, they do not read very fluently. In order to be a fluent reader, one must be able to decode words quickly and use correct intonation and pausing to indicate sentences, phrases, etc. Children who are able to read fluently and smoothly are able to comprehend what they are reading more easily. Reading fluency is a critical skill for literacy success.
Real-Time Captioning
On-line captioning for television screens and monitors giving the printed speech of live speakers.
Reasonable Accommodation
Adoption of a facility or program that can be accomplished without undue administrative or financial burden.
Receptive Identification
Identifying the item that is labeled, by pointing or selecting. This is a non-verbal response.
Receptive Language
The ability to understand the intent and meaning of someone’s goal to communicate; the ability to attach meanings to words, based on experience.
Receptive Language Disorder
Difficulty understanding what is being said to them.
Receptive Language Difficulties
See Comprehension / Receptive Language Difficulties.
Receptive Language Skills
Understanding / comprehension of language. This may involve gaining meaning from a familiar routine, understanding sounds and words, developing and understanding of concepts, understanding grammatical markers etc.
Recovery
A process through which people with aphasia reconnect their ability to speak, understand and communicate. We have learned that aphasia recovery need never reach a plateau; that progress can continue with innovative and effective treatment and practice. Maximizing aphasia recovery: involves hope and faith; is driven by the empowered client; is holistic in nature; is supported by family, peers and others; utilizes many different facets of life and treatment; and is based on respect and hard, smart work.
Recreation
Related service; includes therapeutic recreation services, recreation programs, and leisure education.
Redirect
The client is guided or shown a more appropriate behavior or activity.
Refer / Referral / Referring
When a teacher or health professional identifies a student with a potential problem with communication, literacy or swallowing they refer the student for a Speech-Language Pathology Assessment / Speech and Language Therapy Assessment. A written and signed document by a medical or pediatric physician that recommends services. They describe their concerns in simple language (usually in writing) and talk to the student’s parent/caregiver about the need for ‘referral for assessment’, helping them find an appropriate SLP/SLT. The information and insights that teachers or health professionals provide to the SLP/SLT in the course of referral and also in ‘case discussion’ can be very helpful. All outpatient specialized therapy services, including speech therapy and occupational therapy, require a referral.
Regional Centers
The Centers shall function as a leader and advocate in promoting the continuing entitlement of citizens with developmental disabilities to all services that enable full community inclusion. The Association shall also participate in the development of public legislative policy and serve as a focal point for communication, education, training and prevention services.
Regulatory and Sensory Systems
The internal systems that control ability to register and respond to internal sensory input and external stimuli.
Rehabilitation
To restore to good health or useful life, as through therapy and education.
Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Civil rights statute designed to protect individuals with disabilities from discrimination; purposes are to maximize employment, economic self sufficiency, independence, inclusion and integration into society.
Rehabilitation Counseling Services
Related service; includes career development, preparation for employment, vocational rehabilitation services funded under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.
Reinforcement
A stimulus that strengthens the behavior that produced it. Presenting something desirable to the client, or removing something undesirable.
Reinforcer
An event or consequence (reward) that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Any game, toy or activity which is reinforcing for the child, and which maintains their interest for longer. When working with young children, the use of reinforcers is paramount, to ensure the adult can get the most from a play or work session.
Related Services
Transportation and developmental, corrective and other support services that a student with disabilities requires in order to benefit from special education. Some examples of related services include: social work services, psychological services, physical and occupational therapy, recreation, speech/language services, interpreters for students with hearing impairments, assistive technology, etc.
Relational Analysis
See Core Speech Assessment Battery.
Remediation
The act or process of correcting a fault or deficiency
Repetition
This is a strategy that can be used to help children learn language. This is for children who are speaking at least in single words, to help provide correct models for articulation. You simply repeat back the word he/she said incorrectly, the correct way. Examples include:
- Child: “wabbit” for “rabbit” Parent: Emphasize the /r/ sound when repeating the word back.
- Whole Word Repetition: “The boy-boy is playing”, “The dog-dog ate his food”
- Part Word Repetition: “Ch-Ch-Chair” or “Ch-Chair”
- Part Word Repetition with Schwa: “Ta-Table” or “Tuh-Table”
- Phrase Repetition: “Tomorrow I will go, tomorrow I will go to school.”
Repetitive Motor Mannerisms
Repetition of movements or posturing of the body. May include hand and body movements, and odd postures of body parts. These movements or postures do not appear to have meaning, but are typically significant to children with ASD.
Replacement Behavior
A planned behavior used to replace a less desirable behavior.
Representational Play
Pretend play which emerges when a child begins to use familiar objects in appropriate ways to represent their world (i.e. pushing a toy lawn mower over the grass). Begins to occur between 12- to 21-months of age.
Residual Hearing
The amount of usable hearing which a deaf or hard-of-hearing person has.
Resource Specialist
Typically, a Resource Specialist provides support, pertinent information, consultant services, and direct intervention to individuals, their family, and staff members regarding educational/learning needs and issues. Frequently found within the public school setting.
Respiration
Act of breathing.
Response Time
Period of time involved in producing a response to a stimulus.
Response to Intervention (RtI)
RtI is a scientific, research-based approach developed to provide a collaborative problem solving framework to address the learning needs of students who are not achieving commensurate with their peers, using grade-specific benchmarks. Student outcome data is the determining factor for either increasing or changing the research-based instruction or intervention being used to help the student achieve academically. RtI is a multi-step process, with systematic monitoring and is routinely implemented prior to assessing a student for special education services.
Restricted Patterns of Interest
Limited range of interest that are intense in focus. These interests tend to be narrow and rigid and appear to be obsessions.
Reverberation
Prolongation of a sound after the sound source has ceased or an echo within a room, due to sound absorption of walls, floor and ceiling.
Revision
Stoppage typically in the middle of a sentence or thought, characterized by avoiding a block and going back to the beginning of the phrase or sentence. For example:
- “I was going to the park (anticipated block)” voicing stops
- Revision- “I was going to the park and I saw a stray dog.”
Rhett’s Syndrome
A nervous system developmental disorder typically diagnosed in early childhood. It is characterized by developmental reversals in expressive language and abnormal hand use.
Rhythm
The proper timing between pauses and spoken words in your speech. If your rhythm is “off” your pauses may be too long or too short between words.
Rituals
Repeated behaviors that appear to be meaningless but are repeated by an individual in certain situations or circumstances.
Scaled Score
A scaled score is a conversion of a one’s raw score that allows for comparison between other students and also for the same student over a period of time.
Screen Literacy
A person’s ability to successfully interact with everyday technology. This is a critical skill in today’s world and might include using a cell phone, an ATM, a TV remote, or a gas pump.
Screening
An abbreviated or brief evaluation of a child to determine if a full or complete evaluation is necessary. If any delays are suspected, the child may be referred for a more comprehensive evaluation that would determine whether the child had a disability and needed special education. It is often a part of a program called “Child Find.” ‘Screening’ (Roulstone, 2009) has at least three distinct meanings.
Early identification screening of at risk populations– This is a public health process in which children within a defined population (e.g., low birth weight infants; all pre-schoolers) are tested to identify those who are at risk of speech and language problems so they can be referred for further diagnostic testing. The aim of such screening is to provide early identification, so as to provide treatment at the earliest appropriate opportunity or as a preventative measure.
Informal Speech-Language Pathology / Speech and Language Therapy triage screening– This happens as part of the initial assessment process carried out by a speech-language pathologist. The experienced speech pathologist makes judgements about the priority status of each newly referred child in order to make best use of resources and monitor the urgency and needs of those being referred.
Formal screening assessment– Screening assessments are used to decide whether an aspect of speech and language requires further investigation. For example, the screening assessment of the DEAP allows the therapist to gain a quick overview of the child’s articulation and phonology in order to establish whether or not to carry out full diagnostic testing.
The first type of screening described above is a public health role, to be carried out by health and education professionals including preschool and school teachers.
Scripting
See Echolalia.
Secondary Behaviors
Secondary behaviors are behaviors a person who stutters exhibits in response to the core behaviors. These behaviors are developed in reaction to the moment of stuttering. Secondary behaviors can include avoidance or escape behaviors, circumlocution, using fillers, avoiding eye contact, etc.
Section 504
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act protects individuals with disabilities from discrimination due to disability by recipients of federal financial assistance.
Segmentation
Breaking down a sentence into words, a word into syllables and a syllable into phonemes.
Selectively Mute Children
Selectively mute children can speak but only do so with certain people or in certain places. For example, a child might speak at home to his/her parents but not to anyone at school (including his/her parents). A selectively mute child has an anxiety disorder and appropriate management is by a clinical psychologist or child psychiatrist. Many such children also have communication disorders, so a SLP/SLT may be involved, working collaboratively with the child, family and other professionals including teachers
Selective Mutism
Selective mutism is a term used when children who are able to talk quite freely in some situations, usually with their families at home, and are persistently silent in other situations, usually outside the home and with less familiar people. The problem commonly shows up in school where children who have not spoken for two terms or more can usefully be described as having selective mutism.
Self Advocate
An individual being able to effectively communicate their own wants, needs and desires on their own behalf.
Self Help Skills
The basic daily living activities of eating, dressing, bathing, and use of the toilet.
Self Management
Monitoring, recording and reinforcing one’s own behavior and actions.
Self Regulation
The nervous system’s ability to attain, maintain and change levels of arousal or alertness.
Self Stimulating Behaviors
Self-stimulating movements, postures, and/or mannerisms significant to the performer. Typical in children with ASD.
Self Talk
This is a strategy that can be used to help children learn language. This is when you are using short sentences to talk about what you are seeing. hearing or doing when you are with your child. For example, when you are making cookies you may say “Mommy is making cookies! I am putting the chocolate chips in the batter! I am stirring. I am going to put them in the oven” and so on.
Semantic Disorder / Pragmatic Disorder
Children with semantic and pragmatic disorders are often first identified because of their unusual language characteristics. Children may have difficulty understanding some words, phrases and sentences, and use others oddly or inappropriately. They often show signs of limited social development and play. ‘Semantic’ refers to the meanings of words and phrases. ‘Pragmatic’ refers to knowing what to say when, and how to say it to other people.
Semantics
The study of the meaning of language, includes the relations between language, thought and behavior.
Sensorimotor
Denoting the combination of the input of sensations and the output of motor activity; motor activity reflects what is happening to the sensory organs.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
A permanent hearing loss caused by failure or damage of auditory fibers in the inner ear (cochlea) and/or damage to the neural system.
Sensory Integration Disorder (SID)
A neurological disability in which the brain and nervous system are unable to receive, process and integrate information coming in from the senses, causing learning and behavioral problems.
Sensory Integration Dysfunction
Sensory integration dysfunction is the inability to process certain information received through the senses.
Sensory Integration and Praxis Test (SIPT)
This test evaluates sensory processing deficits related to learning and behavior problems. The SIPT measures visual, tactile, and kinesthetic perception as well as motor performance. It is composed of 17 brief tests. The SIPT test is a helpful assessment in providing standardized scores which may be necessary to prove to insurance companies or school districts the need to provide occupational therapy services. In addition, the SIPT will very specifically delineate processing challenges which may be contributing to difficulties in learning or behavior.
Sensory Processing Disorder
Difficulty in the way the brain takes in, organizes, and uses sensory information, causing a person to have problems interacting effectively in the everyday environment.
Sensory Stimulation
Behaviors performed to stimulate internal response. May be for avoidance, attention requests, or a means of soothing. Appear meaningless to everyone but the person performing the action.
Sensory
May refer to a type of deficit, where a child is hyper or hypo sensitive to touch, noises, light, or smell. May also refer to hyper or hypo sensation in and around the mouth that could contribute to speech and eating problems.
Sensory Diet
A planned and scheduled activity program designed to meet a child’s specific sensory needs.
Sensory Input
Internal (heart rate, body temperature) and external (sights, sounds, tastes, etc.) sensations.
Sensory Integration
The process of the brain organizing and interpreting sensory information.
Services Plan
A written statement that (1) describes the special education and related services the school district will provide to a parentally placed child with a disability enrolled in a nonpublic school who has been designated to receive services, including the location of the services and any transportation necessary, consistent with rule 3301-51-08 of the Administrative Code; and (2) is developed and implemented in accordance with rule 3301-51-08 of the Administrative Code.
Shaping
This is used to develop a behavior that a client does not already demonstrate. Shaping involves reinforcing approximations of a desired behavior.
Shifting Attention
Being able to change attention from one activity or task to another.
Short-Term Memory
See Specific Memory Disorders. Brief, verbatim storage of auditory information. It is often called “working memory,”. Short-term memory is an important component in reading, as it allows the reader to remember a string of individual sounds and then blend then the sounds together when decoding an unfamiliar word. Short-term memory is the ability to hold information for a limited period of time, such as visual images (e.g. a shape or face) and/or phonological/auditory information (e.g. a spoken telephone number or sentence). Information can be held in this way for a few seconds. If the information has to be held for longer a system of rehearsal can be used (e.g. repeating a number to yourself to help you remember). Should one of these skills fail to work in some way, this could lead to specific short-term memory problems. However, problems that appear to be due to poor memory can also have other causes, such as inattention, language difficulties and general learning difficulties. Therefore a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment is necessary to reliably identify a specific memory disorder and rule out other possible causes of problematic behaviour. Children who have short-term memory disorders can have particular problems in a number of areas, including;
Short-Term Objectives
Immediate steps leading to each annual IEP goal. Objectives must be measurable and understandable to all IEP team members.
Sight Word
Words that are memorized or easily recognized without being decoded in a sound-by-sound manner. These tend to be high-frequency words. During reading instruction, words that do not follow basic rules of phonology (“exception words”) are usually explicitly taught as sight words. Examples include “there” and “again.” These can be particularly difficult for the young dyslexic.
Signal to Noise Ratio
The difference in the intensities of the speech signal (such as a teacher’s voice) and the ambient (background) noise.
Signed English Systems
Sign systems developed for educational purposes, which use manual signs in English word order; sometimes with added affixes which are not present in American Sign Language. Signing Exact English and Seeing Essential English are two examples.
Skill Deficit
A below expected performance of a skill.
Small Group
A structured therapy group that meets on a daily basis in which a facilitator leads a group of children in activities based on the programming goals identified for that specific group (examples include: Music and Movement, Stepping Stones, CREATE).
Social Communication
See Pragmatics.
Social Imitative Play
Acting out typical actions or daily routines in the context of play.
Social Impairment
Verbal and/or nonverbal difficulties in socializing and relating with peers.
Social Interaction
Verbal and/or nonverbal behavior used to communicate with others.
Social Language Disorder
Difficulties with turn taking. Initiating and maintaining a conversation, repairing conversation breakdowns, perspective taking and interpreting non-verbal cues.
Social Play Groups
Play groups that help children develop social skills, gain independence, and build self-confidence.
Social Reciprocity
Back and forth flow of social interaction. A persons behavior influences another’s behavior and so forth.
Social Skills
The ability to interact with other people appropriately, include making appropriate eye contact, taking turns, using appropriate language, demonstrating listener awareness, initiating interaction and responding to interaction.
Social Stories
A social story is like a script for a specific situation or scenario in your child’s life. It explains to the child what will happen in a given situation and how the child should behave. This can be extremely helpful when working with a child who may not always understand what is going on around him or be able to communicate in that situation.
Sociodramatic Play
Play involving acting out scripts, scenes, etc. (i.e., from a favorite cartoon or book or from daily life). Children take/assume roles using themselves and/or characters (dolls, figures) as they interact together on common themes. A faciliator may assist ideas for characters, settings or props and use the children’s ideas for a story. Typically occurs between 3 – 4 years of age. As a child matures, themes, sequences, plans, problem solving, characters and so forth become more rich and they begin to organize other children for role play with independence (around 5 years of age).
Soft Palate / Velum
The part of the palate which is soft and flexible. The soft palate moves for swallowing, sucking and when producing certain speech sounds. The soft palate (velum) extends from the rear of the hard palate nearly to the back of the throat, terminating in the uvula. See Velum.
Solitary Play
The child plays alone with toys that are different from those used by the children within speaking distance and makes no effort to interact with other children. The child plays alone without concern for the activities of those around him/her. Seen by 15-18 mos up through 2 yrs.
Sonorant
Sonorants are consonants or vowels produced without obstruction of the airstream (cf. Obstruent)
Sound Fields
Area for testing how well an individual can hear with hearing aids on.
Sound System
The sounds that a child is able to say and the sound combination rules the child makes use of.
Speaking Rate
A speech term for how fast or slowly you speak.
Special Needs
A term that describes a child with a mental or physical disability that requires special services or treatment.
Special Education
Resources, services, classes, etc. for students with special educational needs. The public school system is involved with the identification of students with special needs, ages three on up. They provide assessment and, if appropriate, intervention services for those who qualify. Specific procedures are involved in assessment and intervention. If identified with special needs, an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) is written for the child to address learning needs.
Specialized Individual Program
Specific programs that are greatly beneficial to certain individuals.
Specific Language Impairment (SLI)
When a child’s language (comprehension and/or expression) is the only area of difficulty and all other areas of a child’s development at in line with their peers. A language disorder that prohibits the mastery of language skills in children who do not have hearing loss or developmental delays. It is the most common childhood learning disability and there is no known cause.
Specific Learning Disability (SLD/SpLDs)
Disability category under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act; includes disorders that affect the ability to understand or use spoken or written language; may manifest in difficulties with listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, and doing mathematical calculations; includes minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. ‘Dyslexia’ is often used interchangeably with ‘specific learning difficulties’ (SpLDs), and indeed the terms mean the same in the case of many children. However, it is possible to make a distinction between them. Children with SpLDs need not be dyslexic. For example, some children have little or no trouble learning to read, write and spell. Yet, they may confuse ‘left’ and ‘right’, have great difficulty noticing the exact details of shapes and directions, and have unusual difficulty with maths or arithmetic. Strictly speaking, these children do not have dyslexia, though they may have a specific learning difficulty. SpLD, then, describes children who have difficulty in one or two aspects of learning but who do well in other areas.
Specific Memory Disorders
It is increasingly recognised that like adults, children can have specific memory disorders (Gathercole, ’98). It is known that these can adversely affect the development of other skills, such as children’s language development, academic attainments, independent living skills and general problem solving abilities (Hood & Rankin, in press).
Specific Language Impairment (SLI)
lingual People with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) – Bilingualism does not cause or contribute to SLI. However, SLI is just as likely to affect bilingual children as monolingual children. A bilingual child presenting with SLI will experience difficulties acquiring both (all) their languages. It is therefore essential for a speech and language therapist (with the assistance of an appropriately qualified co-worker, where applicable) to assess a child in the context of all the languages to which the child is exposed. See Specific Language Impairment (SLI).
Speech
When we speech pathologists refer to the term speech we are referring to three things: articulation/phonological skills, speech fluency and voice. We are looking at a child’s ability to: Physically produce the individual sounds and sound patterns of his/her language (Articulation), produce speech with appropriate rhythm, and free of Stuttering behavior, produce speech with an appropriate vocal quality for his/her age and sex.
Speech Apparatus
The mouth, tongue, nose, breathing, and so on, and how they are co-ordinated and operated by muscles. Children with a difficulty Specific language impairment in this area only are usually identified quickly as having a speech and language impairment.
Speech Banana
‘Speech banana’ is a term used to refer to the speech spectrum since speech is softest in both the very low and high frequencies and loudest at low-mid frequencies, producing a banana shape when plotted on the audiogram. SeeAudiogram.
Speech Delay
Speech development that is following a normal pattern, but typical of a younger child.
Speech Disorder
Any deviation of speech outside the range of acceptable variation in a given environment. Speech may be considered defective if it is characterized by any of the following to a significant degree: A. not easily heard; B. not readily intelligible; C. vocally or visually unpleasant; D. deviates in respect to sound production; E. lacks conventional rhythm or stress.
Speech Impaired (SI)
A category of special education services for students who have difficulty with speech sounds in their native language.
Speech Intelligibility
This is how well a person’s speech can be understood. If your “speech intelligibility” is good, that means the words you are speaking are clear and can be understood most or all of the time.
Speech Mechanism
Structures involved in the production of speech; includes A. articulators (lips, tongue, velum, pharynx and lower jaw); B. larynx; C. resonators, (pharyngeal, laryngeal, oral and nasal cavities); D. respiratory system (lungs and air passages).
Speech Motor Programming
The activity that occurs in the brain that leads to sequencing the motor movements needed to produce speech accurately.
Speech Perception
The ability to recognize speech stimuli presented at suprathreshold levels (levels loud enough to be heard).
Speech Sound
The speech sounds are vowels, diphthongs, triphthongs, and consonants.
Speech Sound Disorder (SSD)
A Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) involves difficulty with and/or slowness in the development of a child’s speech. There are several classification systems associated with SSD. SSD may be due to a genetically based linguistic processing deficit (60% of children with SSD); fluctuating conductive hearing loss/ ‘glue ear’ (30% of children with SSD); or a genetically transmitted deficit in speech motor control (10% of children with SSD). There is overlap between these areas (e.g., a child might have glue ear and a linguistic processing deficit).
Speech Sound System
Speech sound system is another name for the phonological system. It is a system of sound contrasts.
Speech-Language Pathology Services
Related service; includes identification and diagnosis of speech or language impairments, speech or language therapy, counseling and guidance.
Speech-Language Therapist (SLT or SALT)
A specialist who is able to assess and treat speech and language difficulties.
Speech-Language Therapist Assistant (SLTA or SP)
A trained professional who works alongside a SLT.
Speech-Language Therapy
A planned program to improve and correct speech and/or language or communication problems. In the schools, an adverse effect must be identified either academically or socially in order for the child to be eligible for services.
Speech-Language Assistant
This practitioner holds a Associates Degree in Speech-Language Pathology and operates under the state licensure of a certified speech-language pathologist. He/She is support personnel who, following academic and/or on-the-job training, perform tasks prescribed, directed, and supervised by ASHA-certified speech-language pathologists. The scope of a speech-language pathology assistant is limited, but primarily he/she may not perform diagnostic tests, evaluations, or clinical interpretation of test or therapy performance results. A speech-language pathology assistant may assist with documentation (without interpretation), assist with hearing or speech-language screenings, and follow treatment plans as described by the supervising speech-language pathologist.
Speech-Language Impairment
One or more of the following communication impairments which adversely affects educational performance: An inability to articulate words correctly, including omissions, substitutions, or distortions of sound, beyond the age when they might normally be expected; Voice impairment, including abnormal rate of speaking, speech interruptions, and repetition of sounds, words, phrases, or sentences, which interferes with effective communication; One or more other language impairments, as determined both by informal use of language and by at least two standardized tests or subtests which indicate inappropriate language functioning for the child’s age.
Speech-Language Pathologist
A professionals who is educated to assess speech and language development, treat language and speech disorders, and help people with swallowing disorders. Requires at least a Master’s Degree, state, and national credentials.
Speech-Language Pathology
The study of human communication and its disorders and the assessment and treatment of those disorders.
Speechreading
The interpretation of lip and mouth movements, facial expressions, gestures, elements of sound, structural characteristics of language, and topical and contextual clues. Sometimes referred to as lip reading.
Spontaneous Recovery
A. In aphasia, the return, complete or incomplete, of impaired abilities, such as speech, intellectual functions, motor functions; may occur with or without therapeutic intervention, usually within a period of three months. B. In stuttering, the remission of stuttering without formal therapy.
Stammering
Disorder of fluency, rhythm, and rate; often refers to involuntary speech stoppages. In the U.S., this term is not specifically differentiated from stuttering. See Stuttering. There are some features which are typically characteristic of stammering:
Standardized
This term is often used interchangeably with norm-referenced. It involves a process of assessing a sample population in order to establish general evaluative criteria. A standardized test evaluates a child using consistent criteria, administration, and scoring.
Standardized Tests
A test given to a group of students under uniform conditions (the same instructions, time limits, etc.) Tests that are administered in a specifically described standard way, scored in a particular way, and then compared with the performance of a standard group.
Standard Deviation (SD)
This is a value which the test developer establishes during test construction. It represents the degree to which a given test score is expected to differ from the mean or average score. Fifteen points above or below the mean score of 100 on an IQ test is considered one standard deviation, so a score of 85 indicates that the child is considered one standard deviation below the mean. One standard deviation below is often considered a cut-off for a typical performance. Therefore a child who receives a score greater than 85 is within normal range (and over 115 gets into the above average performance range) and a performance score of below 85 is considered below average and evidence of atypical or delayed development.
Standard Score
A standard score is developed for most tests and represents the score that is expected for an individual of a specific age. For many tests, the expected standard score is 100, and plus or minus 15 (the SDs) establishes the range of “typical” performance scores. Therefore if a child receives a standard score of 105, this will be interpreted as average performance on the test, because that score is within 15 points above 100.
Starter
A word or phrase used frequently and inappropriately to start phonation and/or avoid the moment of stuttering. For example:
State Performance Plan (SPP)
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA) requires each state to have in place a State Performance Plan (SPP) that evaluates its efforts to implement the requirements and purposes of Part B of IDEA and describes how the state will improve such implementation. The SPP, submitted every six years, includes measurable and rigorous targets for the 20 indicators established under three monitoring priority areas:
Stereotyped Behaviors
Abnormal or excessive repetition of actions.
Stereotyped Language
Abnormal or excessive repetition of words or phrases.
Stickler Syndrome
A disorder that causes problems with vision, hearing and joints. People with this syndrome have very prominent facial features and it has a high comorbidity with Pierre Robin sequence.
Stimming
Self-stimulatory behavior, also known as stimming and self-stimulation, is the repetition of physical movements, sounds, or repetitive movement of objects common in individuals with developmental disabilities, but most prevalent in people with autistic spectrum disorders. It is considered a way which people with autism calm and stimulate themselves. Therapists view this behavior as a protective response to being overly sensitive to stimuli, with which the individual blocks less predictable environmental stimuli. Sensory processing disorder is also given as a reason by some therapists for the condition. Another theory is that stimming is a way to relieve anxiety, and other emotions.
Stimulability
The extent to which a misarticulated sound can be produced correctly by imitation or other cues. Traditionally, ‘stimulable’ has meant that a consonant or vowel can be produced in isolation by a child, in direct imitation of an auditory and visual model with or without instructions, cues, imagery, feedback and encouragement. We know that if a child is not stimulable for a sound there is poor probability of short-term progress with that sound. That is, the sound is unlikely to ‘spontaneously correct’ or magically ‘become stimulable’. Since the late 1990s the child phonology literature has encouraged clinicians to target non-stimulable sounds, because if a non-stimulable sound is made stimulable to two syllable positions, using our unique clinical skills, it is likely to be added to the child’s inventory, even without direct treatment (Miccio, Elbert & Forrest, 1999). The stimulability of a sound to two syllable positions is sometimes referred to as ‘true stimulability’.
Stimuli
Materials used to demonstrate or teach skills. Examples:
Stimulus
A. Something that elicits an action or response; B. An object that is recognized by the senses.
Stop(s)
Speech sounds made by complete constriction of the vocal tract; usually followed by an abrupt release of air that produces a noise burst. (such as /d/, /t/, /k/, etc.). The terms ‘plosive’ or ‘plosive consonant’ are synonyms.
The place-voice-manner (PVM) chart below shows four voiceless stops (bilabial, alveolar, velar and glottal) and three voiced stops bilabial, alveolar and velar).
Stopping
When long sounds come out as short ones e.g. ‘sand’ comes out as ‘dand’ or ‘socks’ come out as ‘docks.’ Stopping is a phonological process (phonological pattern) in which a fricative is replaced by a stop (e.g., ‘sea’ pronounced as ‘tea’) or an affricate is replaced by a stop (e.g., ‘jig’ pronounced as ‘dig’).
Stress
An increase in pitch, loudness or duration used to give emphasis to a syllable or word.
Stroke (or Cerebrovascular Accident, CVA)
A stroke is caused by a blockage of an artery which causes a disruption of blood to the brain. Strokes are caused in a variety of ways, including hemorrhage (an artery bursts or leaks), thrombosis (a blood clot blocks blood flow to the brain) and embolism (foreign material flows in blood stream and obstructs the flow of blood to the brain). Strokes range in severity and frequently cause neurological problems that can be mild to severe. A group of brain disorders involving loss of brain functions that occur when the blood supply to any part of the brain is interrupted. This results in difficulty using and understanding language and muscle weakness.
Structural Processes
See Syllable Structure Process.
Stuttering / Fluency Disorder
Stuttering is a communication/fluency disorder that effects speech fluency. It is characterized by breaks in the flow of speech referred to as disfluencies and typically begins in childhood. Everyone experiences disfluencies in their speech. Some disfluencies are totally normal but having too many can actually significantly affect one’s ability to communicate. In stuttering, we most often see the following types of primary behaviors: repetitions, prolongations, interjections, and blocks. We may also see secondary behaviors, typically in more severe cases of stuttering such as tension in the neck, shoulders, face, jaw, chest; eye blinks, nose flaring, other odd facial movements; clenched fists, stomping of feet; jerking or other unusual motor movements in arms, hands, legs, feet. All children who stutter require assessment by a SLP/SLT.
Stuttering Pattern
Specific behaviors a particular stutterer demonstrates in speech interference; usually becomes predictable and reoccurring.
Substitution Processes
See Systemic Process.
Substitutions
A secondary behavior of stuttering that occurs when a person who stutters substitutes a word they really want to say to another word with the same meaning.
Supervision / Standby Support
The student is able to complete the prescribed activity given cueing, coaxing and prompting.
Supervisory and Coordinator Services
Includes providing information and explanation regarding state and federal laws, recommended practice, and other topics essential for the delivery of services to learners with disabilities; helping school district personnel evaluate the effectiveness of special education and related services; and providing in-service education to parents and personnel involved in educating children with disabilities.
Supplementary Aids and Services
Means aids, services, and supports that are provided in regular education classes that enable children with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled children to the maximum extent appropriate.
Suprasegmental
Prosodic feature of a language, including stress, intonation, duration, and juncture.
Surrogate Parent
Someone who is appointed by the school district to act in the place of the child’s parent, representing the child in all areas of educational matters, if the child’s parent cannot be located.
Suspension
A suspension is any time that a child is not being provided FAPE due to disciplinary action.
Sustained Attention
The ability to remain on task for a predetermined amount of time.
Swallowing Disorder
Problems with eating or swallowing various food consistencies that may cause a child to choke or aspirate.
Syllabification
The forming or division of words into syllables. A person’s inability to recognize the number of syllables in a word can affect his/her spoken language.
Syllable
A part of a word that contains a vowel or, in spoken language, a vowel sound (e-vent, news-pa-per).
Syllable Structure Process
Syllable Structure Processes (also called Structural Processes) are speech simplifications made by children in which the structure of a syllable or word changes.These phonological processes include the developmental processes of Reduplication, Final Consonant Deletion, Cluster Reduction and Weak Syllable Deletion, and the non-developmental patterns of Initial Consonant Deletion, Deletion of Unmarked Cluster Element, and Final Vowel Addition.
Syllable Trees
There are two ways of representing the contents of a syllable non-linearly:
Onset and rime syllable tree– Onset and rime (rhyme) syllable tree comprising. The onset is the initial consonant if any. The rime is the rest of the syllable which is further divided into (i.) nucleus (the vowel or vowels). (ii.) coda (final consonant if any)
Symbolic Play
Symbolic, or dramatic, play is when children begin to substitute one object for another. For example, using a hairbrush to represent a microphone. The child may pretend to do something (with or without the object present or with an object representing another object) or be someone. They may also pretend through other inanimate objects (e.g., has a doll pretend to feed another doll). Dramatic play with sequence of pretend acts predominates after 2 years of age.
Syntax
The arrangement of words to form meaningful sentences; a part of grammar.
Systemic Process
Systemic Processes (also called Substitution Processes) are speech simplifications made by children in which a consonant is replaced by a different (incorrect) consonant. Systemic processes include the developmental processes of Fronting (a front sound like /t/ replaces a back sound like /k/ so that ‘car’ is pronounced as ‘tar’), Stopping, Context Sensitive Voicing and Gliding, and the non-developmental processes of Backing, Denasalization, Devoicing of Stops, Systematic Sound Preference and Glottal Replacement where it is not dialectal.
Table Top Play
Organized play that occurs at a table or related location. For example a board game, cards, etc.
Tact
Labeling or naming an item that is present. For example:
| Therapist |
Client |
| “What’s this called?” (pencil) ? |
“pencil” |
| “What do you see?” ? |
“a bird flying” |
Tactile Defensiveness
An obvious dislike to being touched, or to a food, fabric, or sensation that is usually accompanied by a negative emotional response.
Tactile System
Provides us with our sense of touch.
Tangible Reinforcer
A tangible item used as a reinforcer in order to increase or maintain targeted behavior. For example, a favorite food, toy or book.
Tantrum
The expression of intense frustration. Typical of children that cannot typically express emotions or verbalize needs.
Target Behavior
A behavior that a client is taught and expected to learn.
Targets
Refers to individual tasks the child is working on within his/her current programs.
Teacher
Term used broadly to include teachers trained to work with deaf and hard-of-hearing children, teachers in ordinary (mainstreamed) classrooms, or a resource teacher who may work with children who have special needs.
Tele-rehabilitation
Also referred to as Telepractice, may be defined is the provision of treatment services at a distance. Rather than being a substitute for face-to-face sessions, telepractice is a new, proven system for providing aphasia treatment to clients all over the world. It is critical to not only use tools and activities designed to exploit neuroplasticity, but to also that take advantage of technology when using telepractice.
Telepractice
Also referred to as tele-rehabilitation, may be defined is the provision of treatment services at a distance. Rather than being a substitute for face-to-face sessions, telepractice is a new, proven system for providing aphasia treatment to clients all over the world. It is critical to not only use tools and activities designed to exploit neuroplasticity, but to also that take advantage of technology when using telepractice.
Text Comprehension
The reason for reading: understanding what is read by reading actively (making sense from text) and with purpose (for learning, understanding, or enjoyment).
Textual
Reading a word or phrase.
Themed Activity
This refers to groups of activities that are based around a common theme. For example, you may have activities that are all about sports or winter. Themed activities can be great for working on speech and language skills.
Theory of Mind
A “Theory of Mind” (often abbreviated as TOM) is a specific cognitive ability to understand others as intentional agents, that is, to interpret their minds in terms of theoretical concepts of intentional states such as beliefs and desires. It has been commonplace in philosophy (see Davidson 1984; Dennett 1987) to see this ability as intrinsically dependent upon our linguistic abilities. After all, language provides us a representational medium for meaning and intentionality : thanks to language we are able to describe other people’s and our own actions in an intentional way as in : “Ralph believes that Mary intends him to persuade George that p”. According to this view, the intentionality of natural language, that is, its suitability for expressing meanings and thoughts, is the key for understanding the intentionality of our theory of mind.
Therapeutic Feeding & Swallowing
For children who may be eating a limited variety of foods or may having difficulty chewing and/or swallowing.
Therapist
One who specializes in the provision of a particular therapy.
Therapy
Treatment of illness, disability, or delay.
Therapy for Individuals who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing
SLP’s assist clients in learning to discriminate the sounds of language and the environment. They help their clients learn to say the sounds of language and to produce words and sentences to communicate. They assist in use their hearing aids or cochlear implants effectively and develop lip reading skills. They also help them to develop oral, written and sign language knowledge and skills. Cued Speech may be used to facilitate the reception of spoken language and to develop spoken language comprehension.
Thermal Stimulation
placing ice or a cold object on a weak muscle to stimulate nerve and muscle reaction.
Token Economy System
A student earns tokens for exhibiting the desired behavior. The tokens are exchanged at a later time for a reinforcer which is typically selected by the student.
Tongue
The most important articulator for speech production is undoubtedly the tongue. During speech, the amazing range of well-controlled movements the tongue can make includes tip-elevation, grooving, and protrusion. The tongue is almost entirely composed of muscle tissue. The parts of the tongue are the tip, front (the widest part), back (from the back teeth to the pharynx), and root (where it joins the lower jaw). It is anchored underneath by the lingual fraenulum.
Tongue Thrust
Swallowing with a forward movement of the tongue in which the tongue pushes against the teeth; can result in misarticulation of various phonemes.
Tongue-Tie / Ankyloglossia
A tongue-tie (Ankyloglossia / Short fraenulum / Short fraenum) is a birth defect in which the lingual fraenulum, a band of tissue under the tongue, anchors the tongue too tightly from below so that the tongue has a ‘W’ appearance when the affected person tries to protrude it Tongue-tie may or may not affect speech, but all tongue ties should be checked by a SLP/SLT.
Tourette’s Syndrome
A severe neurological disorder characterized by multiple facial and other body tics, usually beginning in childhood or adolescence and often accompanied by grunts and compulsive utterances, for example, interjections and obscenities. Also called Gilles de la Tourette syndrome.
Transcriptive
Writing and spelling words or phrases.
Transition
The process of a child moving from an early intervention program to a preschool program or other support service.
Transition Plan
This is a special plan that documents goals and objectives for a student that aid him/her in making the transition from school to work. These plans are typically created in the high school years.
Transition Services
IEP requirement; designed to facilitate movement from school to the workplace or to higher education.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Damage to the brain resulting from bruising and laceration caused by forceful contact with the inner surface of the skull, edema or swelling, death of tissue, or hematoma or focal bleeding.
Treacher Collins Syndrome
A condition affecting the development of bones and tissues in the face. Some people born with this syndrome are born with a cleft palate and defects in the middle ear as well.
Treatment Plan
An organized course of action, involving goals/objectives and methods for treatment of a patient.
Trial
One trial consists of the therapist giving an Sd (instruction) to the child and the child gives a response.
Triphthong
A triphthong is like a 3-part vowel containing a glide from one vowel quality to another, to another, as in the word ‘power’ (pow-oo-uh).
Truly Therapeutic
Is when an activity, drill or task offers smart and effective practice that truly facilitates recovery. This means that the activity is not just about doing a drill or using an app. That all too often results in nonproductive, busywork. An educated aphasia consumer will then demand that they work he/she does make sense relative to his/her recovery program and adds value to practice.
Tutor
A person charged with the instruction and guidance of another. Used to describe one who assists another with homework and teaches academic subjects to pupils who require individual instruction. They do not test, remediate or deal with the social-emotional problems typically associated with learning disability. They may not have specialized training in the field of learning disabilities.
Tympanogram
Tympanography is used to monitor otitis media with effusion (‘glue ear’). It is a measure of energy transmission through the middle ear, and the results are represented as a tracing on a tympanogram.
Unilateral Hearing Loss
A mild to profound loss of hearing in only one ear. Unilateral loss is now believed to adversely affect the educational process in a significant percentage of students who have it.
Universal Design
Universal design means a concept or philosophy for designing and delivering products and services that are usable by people with the widest possible range of functional capabilities, which include products and services that are directly accessible (without requiring assistive technologies) and products and services that are inter-operable with assistive technologies.
Utterance
Any vocal expression.
Velar / ‘The Velars’
Velar consonants, usually called ‘the velars’ are made at the velar place of articulation. There are three velars in English: /k/ as in ‘key’, /g/ as in ‘go’ and /n/ as in the final sound in ‘wing’.
Velar Fronting
Velar fronting is a phonological process (phonological pattern) in which a velar consonant /k/, /g/ or /n/ is replaced by an alveolar consonant. So ‘colour’ sounds like ‘tulla’, ‘guy’ sounds like ‘dye’ and ‘wing’ sounds like ‘win’.
Velopharyngeal Closure
Closing, by the velum and pharynx, of the nasal cavity from the oral cavity, thus directing air through the mouth rather than through the nose.
Velopharyngeal Competence
Ability to separate the nasal cavity from the oral cavity by action of the velum and the pharynx.
Velopharyngeal Dysfunction
Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) is also known as velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) or even velopharyngeal incompetence (VPI). The most common cause of velopharyngeal insufficiency is a history of cleft palate or submucous cleft. However, other causes include a short velum, poor pharyngeal wall movement, cranial base anomalies, a history of adenoidectomy, surgery for midface advancement, enlarged tonsils, and irregular adenoids. Neuromotor disorders can cause poor velopharyngeal movement, resulting in velopharyngeal dysfunction. Frequently, hypernasality is perceived.
Velum
The soft palate, comprised of the uvula and palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches. See Soft Palate.
Verbal Apraxia
Not being able to perform coordinated oral muscle movements. However, there is no paralysis or muscle damage involved.
Verbal Communication
The parts of communication which are language based.
Verbal Dyspraxia
Motor speech disorder where the speaker shows reduced efficiency in accomplishing the oral postures necessary for phoneme production and the sequences of those postures for production of syllables, words, sentences, and/or conversation. The speaker may show groping behaviors and struggle to initiate, organize and carry through speech movement. It is a motor planning problem for speech. Generally, unlike dysarthria, there is nothing wrong with the speech muscles themselves.
Verbal Expression
Also called Expressive Language. Refers to a person’s ability to express themselves at the word, phrase, sentence, multi-sentence and conversational levels. Includes ability to use age appropriate vocabulary, concepts and grammar to communicate needs, wants, desires, thoughts, and ideas. Verbal expression refers to the use of oral language for communication. However, expressive language includes the use of alternative or augmentative communication to include gestures, sign language, and simple to complex augmentative devices (for example, picture boards, alphabet boards, computerized systems with or without voice). Difficulties with expressive language can interfere with academic or occupational achievement or with social communication.
Verbal Memory
Verbal Memory is a term used in cognitive psychology that refers to memory of words and other abstractions involving language.
Verbal Reasoning
Think about and solving problems using language.
Vernacular
The language or dialect of a country; the everyday language of ordinary people.
Vestibular System
The sensory system that provides information about movement, gravity and changing head positions.
Video Modeling
Video modeling is much like social stories except that the student watches videos of himself performing desired (correct) behaviors in various situations.
Vision Services
Professional services to aid children’s visual disorders or delays.
Visual Field
The entire area that can be seen when the eye is directed forward, including the peripheral vision.
Visual Field Cut
Also known as hemianopsia or visual field loss. This is a partial or complete loss of vision in the peripheral fields range of vision. A person with this condition may have trouble seeing things out of the corner of his/her eyes, may bump into things or people, or may lose his/her place when reading. It is important to clearly differentiate this condition from visual inattention or neglect.
Visual Impairment Including Blindness
Disability category under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act; impaired vision that adversely affects educational performance.
Visual Motor Integration
The ability to copy shapes and block designs.
Visual Neglect
Also termed visual inattention or visual spatial neglect. This refers to a decreased awareness of the field of view. There may also be sensory and perceptual involvement.
Visual Perception
Shape recognition and visual memory.
Visual Schedule
A list or sequence of pictures that illustrates the order of activities in which the child will participate.
Visual Timetable
The use of pictures and/or objects to represent different parts of a school day.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary refers to the words a reader knows. Listening vocabulary refers to the words a person knows when hearing them in oral speech. Speaking vocabulary refers to the words we use when we speak. Reading vocabulary refers to the words a person knows when seeing them in print. Writing vocabulary refers to the words we use in writing.
Vocal Abuse
Any of several behaviors including yelling that can result in damage to the laryngeal mechanism.
Vocal Cord Paralysis
Where either one or both vocal cords become paralyzed resulting in voice problems. This is due to problems with the nerve.
Vocal Cords / Vocal Folds
The vocal cords (or vocal folds) are composed of twin bands of mucous membrane stretched horizontally inside the larynx (voice box). They vibrate when we speak modulating the airflow from the lungs during phonation. Phonation refers to the production of sound by the cords. The sound itself is very quiet, but it is amplified by the resonators (cavities) it the head, neck and chest.
Vocal Hygiene
Proper care of the voice.
Vocal Misuse
Incorrect use of pitch, tone focus, quality, volume, breath support, or rate which may occur singly or in combinations.
Vocal Nodule(s) / ‘Nodules’
Localized growths on the vocal folds that are associated with vocal abuse. A vocal cord nodule is a mass of benign tissue that grows on the vocal folds (vocal cords) affecting the sound of an affected person’s voice. ‘Nodules’ are common in young children and young adult females (particularly teachers).
Vocal Polyps
A fluid-filled lesion of the vocal folds that results from mechanical stress.
Vocal Stress
This is putting an emphasis on certain words or syllables.
Vocal Tract
The cavities and structures above the vocal folds that can shape and alter airflow and sound vibration into distinctive speech sounds The vocal tract comprises the air passages from above the larynx to the lips and from above the larynx to the nostrils..
Voice
Vocal tone and resonance. Voice is the sound produced by the vocal cords.
Voice Disturbance
In general, there are five categories that characterize the underlying causes of the majority of voice disorders; in decreasing order of frequency, these are: 1.Infectious and inflammatory conditions 2.Vocal misuse and abuse syndromes 3.Benign and malignant growths 4.Neuromuscular diseases 5.Psychogenic conditions. It is common for multiple factors to be involved in the development of a voice disorder. An example is a patient with Reinke’s edema, a term used to describe very swollen vocal cords. These patients almost always are heavy, long-term smokers, most of whom have gastroesophageal reflux as well. Another example of a voice issue is a patient with vocal nodules. This condition is always associated with signs of increased laryngeal muscle tension. Since voice disorders are often multifactorial, appropriate diagnosis and treatment in each case depends upon identification and correction of all of the underlying factors.
Voice Difficulties
Child’s voice sounds different to their peers or has changed recently. This may include: A. Loss of voice B. Harsh voice C. Inappropriate volume and pitch
Voice Disorder
A disorder in which there is any deviation in pitch, intensity, quality, or other basic vocal attribute which consistently interferes with communication, draws unfavorable attention, adversely affects the speaker or the listener, or is inappropriate to the age, sex, or perhaps the culture or class of the individual; may be organic or functional in nature and may be the result of laryngeal function or resonance disorders. Voice disorders are medical conditions affecting the production of the voice. Speech-language pathologists do not assess or treat people with voice disorders until the person’s larynx has been inspected by an Ear Nose and Throat (ENT) specialist.
Voice Problem
A problem with the quality (hoarse/husky), pitch (too high or too low) or volume (too loud or too quiet) of the voice or with the control of the breath for speech.
Voice Therapy
Although less prevalent in the population, voice disorders are no less frustrating to the speaker. Voice quality disorders such as hoarseness may be a sign of physiological pathology in need of medical examination, while vocal resonance disorders such as hypernasality may be the result of structure anomalies. In most cases, voice disorders respond positively to therapeutic intervention.
Voiced
Speech sounds produced using the vibrating vocal folds.
Voiced Consonants
A voiced consonant is made with vibration of the vocal cords. On a consonant chart (see below) they appear in the right hand position in a cell.
Voiced Sounds
Sounds made with vocal fold vibration.
Voiceless
Speech sounds produced without the vibration of vocal folds.
Voiceless Consonants
A voiceless consonant is made without vibration of the vocal cords. On a consonant chart they appear in the left hand position in a cell.
Voiceless Sounds
Sounds made without vocal fold vibration.
Vowel
In speech, vowels are the class of sound which makes the least obstruction to the air stream. All vowels are voiced (made with vibration of the vocal cords) and all are sonorants.
Vowel Chart / Vowel Diagram
The most familiar vowel chart is the one provided by the IPA. The ‘front’, ‘central’ (or middle) and ‘back’ positions on the chart refer to the front, middle and back of the tongue. Close, mid-close, open-mid and open refer to how high the tongue is elevated in the mouth for the production of a particular vowel. A ‘close’ or ‘high’ vowel sees the tongue high in the mouth and the jaw comparatively closed. An ‘open’ or ‘low’ vowel sees the tongue low in the mouth with the jaw comparatively open. The chart does not show the three lip positions for vowel production, namely: rounded, neutral or spread. See Vowel Chart IPA.
Vowel Chart IPA
Vowel Chart SIL
Ward of the State
A child who, as determined by the state where the child resides, is:
- A foster child.
- A ward of the state.
- In the custody of a public child welfare agency.
Weak Syllable Deletion
Weak Syllable Deletion is a phonological process (phonological pattern) in which the weakly stressed syllables in words are omitted; for example, ‘effant’ for ‘elephant’, ‘stake’ for ‘mistake’ and ‘member’ for ‘remember’.
Within Normal Limits (WNL)
The term ‘within normal limits’, always abbreviated WNL, is used to indicate that no abnormal results were found during the testing of an individual child or adult. Another way of saying WNL in children is to report that a child’s performance when tested was ‘age appropriate’ or that the child’s results ‘fell within typical age expectations’.
Word Attack
Word attack is an aspect of reading instruction that includes intentional strategies for learning to decode, sight read, and recognize written words.
Word Finding Difficulties
Word finding refers to the ability to retrieve words. This can be most easily explained by the ‘tip if your tongue’ phenomenon, when you know the word but you simply cannot retrieve it.
Word or Situation Avoidance
The speaker avoids saying certain words or sounds because of previous repeated difficulty with those particular words or sounds. The speaker avoids speaking with certain people or in certain situations based on previous difficulty with fluency in these situations.
Word Switch
Use of a synonym to avoid or in anticipation of a block. For example:
- Saying “pretty” when you really wanted to say “beautiful”.
Working Memory
The brain’s capacity to hold information active until we need to use it for some purpose. The ability to store and manage information in one’s mind for a short period of time. In one test of working memory a person listens to random numbers and then repeats them. The average adult can hold 7 numbers in their working memory. Working memory is sometimes called Short-term memory.
Yawn-Sigh Approach
Techniques used in stuttering and voice therapies to aid in eliminating hard glottal contacts and to encourage greater airflow. The client is instructed to yawn to obtain a longer inspiration, exhale with a light phonation (sigh), and then exhale phonating words that begin with an /h/; use of the initial /h/ helps to eliminate the hard glottal attacks.
504 Modification Plan
An individual learning plan that modifies what the student is expected to demonstrate due to a disability. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act protects individuals with disabilities from discrimination due to disability by recipients of federal financial assistance. A 504 Modification Plan may include changes in instructional level, content, and performance criteria, may include changes in test format and includes alternate assessments. This plan is part of regular education.